Effects of different post-match recovery interventions on subsequent athlete hormonal state and game performance

A longitudinal investigation of bidirectional and time-dependent interrelationships between testosterone and training motivation in an elite rugby environment

In sport, testosterone has been positioned as a substrate for motivation with both directional and time dependencies. However, evidence is scarce when considering the complexities of competitive sport and no work has explicitly modeled these dependencies. To address these gaps, we investigated the bidirectional and time-dependent interrelationships between testosterone and training motivation in an elite rugby environment. Thirty-six male athletes were monitored across training weeks before and after eight international rugby matches. Pre-breakfast measures of salivary testosterone and training motivation (1-10 rating) were taken on training, competition, and recovery days (up to 40 tests). Using a continuous-time (CT) model, within-person estimates of autoregressive effects (persistence) and cross-lagged effects (relationships) were derived. A stronger, more persistent temporal association was identified for testosterone than for motivation. Cross-lagged effects verified that training motivation was positively related to testosterone at latter time points (p < 0.001). Discrete-time analyses revealed a non-linear association; increasing in strength from a zero-time lag to peak after 2.83 days (standardized effect = 0.25), before dissipation over longer lagged intervals. The testosterone relationship with ensuing training motivation was also positive, but non-significant. Match effects also appeared (p < 0.001) with a predicted decline in training motivation, but a rise in testosterone, at match onset. In summary, a positive association emerged between within-person fluctuations in self-appraised motivation to train and testosterone concentration in an elite rugby environment. The lagged, non-linear nature of this relationship and match predictions on both outcomes support, and extend, theoretical models linking testosterone and competitive behaviors.

Dietetic-nutritional, physical and physiological recovery methods post-competition in team sports

To a proper recovery, is absolutely necessary to know that athletes with enhanced recovery after maximal exercise are likely to perform better in sports. Recovery strategies are commonly used in team sports despite limited scientific evidence to support their effectiveness in facilitating optimal recovery and the players spend a much greater proportion of their time recovering than they do in training. According to authors, some studies investigated the effect of recovery strategies on physical performance in team sports, lack of experimental studies about the real origin of the fatigue, certify the need for further study this phenomenon. Thus, developing effective methods for helping athletes to recover is deemed essential. Therefore, the aim of this review is provide information for his practical application, based on scientific evidence about recovery in team sports.

A longitudinal analysis of salivary testosterone concentrations and competitiveness in elite and non-elite women athletes

BACKGROUND

There is evidence linking women's testosterone (T) to competitive behaviours in sport and exercise. To advance this work, we examined the longitudinal relationships between salivary T (sal-T) and competitiveness in athletic women who differ in training status.

METHODS

Elite (n = 9) and non-elite (n = 21) women athletes were monitored on days 6-8 (follicular phase), 13-15 (ovulatory phase) and 20-22 (Luteal phase) of a menstrual cycle with two repeats. Salivary T levels were assessed before breakfast, followed by two questions (each rated on a 1-7 scale) on competitive desire and training motivation. Using a linear mixed model, we evaluated the menstrual phase and training status effects on each variable, before assessing the within-subject effects of sal-T on competitiveness.

RESULTS

Salivary T concentrations were higher at ovulation (effect size [ES] difference = 0.2-1.4), relative to the follicular and luteal phases, with a more marked response among elite women (p < .01). The competitiveness ratings showed similar menstrual-phase variation (ES difference = 0.6-1.0 at ovulation). A positive effect of sal-T on competitiveness emerged in both groups (p < .001), but with different slope patterns (p < .015). Specifically, the elite sal-T relationships with desire to compete (standardized β = 1.147, SE = 0.132) and training motivation (β = 1.195, SE = 0.124) were stronger compared with non-elite women (β = 0.631, SE = 0.114; β = 0.778, SE = 0.114), respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Morning sal-T concentrations, competitive desire and training motivation all peaked around ovulation in women athletes. Notably, sal-T availability and its relationship with competitiveness was stronger among high-performing athletes. Our findings confirm menstrual fluctuations in T and competitiveness among naturally-cycling women, with population context as a moderating factor.

Temporal associations between individual changes in hormones, training motivation and physical performance in elite and non-elite trained men

To advance our understanding of the hormonal contribution to athletic performance, we examined the temporal associations between individual changes in testosterone (T) and/or cortisol (C) concentrations, training motivation and physical performance in elite and non-elite trained men. Two male cohorts classified as elites (n = 12) and non-elites (n = 12) completed five testing sessions over a six-week period. The athletes were tested for salivary T, C, T/C ratio, self-perceived training motivation, countermovement jump (CMJ) height and isometric mid-thigh pull peak force (IMTP PF), after which an actual training workout was performed. The elite men reported higher motivation to train and they produced greater CMJ height overall, whereas the non-elites had higher pooled T levels (p < 0.05). No significant group differences in C concentrations, T/C ratio or IMTP PF were found. The individual changes in T levels were positively associated with training motivation in the elite men only (p = 0.033), but the hormonal and motivation measures did not predict CMJ height or IMTP PF in either group. The monitoring of elite and non-elite men across a short training block revealed differences in T levels, motivation and lower-body power, which may reflect training and competitive factors in each group. Despite having lower T levels, the elite athletes showed better linkage between pre-training T fluctuations and subsequent motivation to train. The nature of the performance tests (i.e. single repetition trials) could partly explain the lack of an association with the hormonal and motivational measures.

Winning and losing in public: audiences direct future success in Japanese quail

Among vertebrates, winning a fight enhances the probability of future victories and vice versa and the role of post-conflict testosterone in mediating this 'winner effect' is widely accepted. In a series of staged fights of Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) we tested both opponents' pre-fight and post-conflict testosterone, behavior and dominance status after returning to their social groups. We found that the presence of a familiar mixed-sex audience during the encounter modulated both the testosterone response and the long-term success after a fighting experience. 'Public losers' but not 'public winners' lacked a post-conflict testosterone response, whereas without an audience both winners and losers increased testosterone metabolite levels. Long-lasting winner and loser effects exclusively occurred when the performance information was perceived by a mixed-sex audience. In further experiments we manipulated the testosterone responsiveness of either the loser or the winner. An artificial post-conflict testosterone surge after having lost a fight effectively reversed the loser effect in Japanese quail. In contrast, the 'winner effect' was not changed by blocking testosterone after the fight. Overall, male Japanese quails' post-conflict testosterone was connected to the audiences and thus, own or the observers' perception of the challenge rather than to winning or losing a fight.