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Burdick R, Bayne D, Hitchcock M, Gilmore-Bykovskyi A, Shune S, Rogus-Pulia N. The Impact of Modifiable Preoral Factors on Swallowing and Nutritional Outcomes in Healthy Adults: A Scoping Review. JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING RESEARCH : JSLHR 2023; 66:4860-4895. [PMID: 37931134 DOI: 10.1044/2023_jslhr-23-00062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Swallowing has previously been characterized as consisting of four phases; however, it has become apparent that these four phases are not truly discrete and may be influenced by factors occurring prior to bolus entrance into the oral cavity (i.e., preoral factors). Still, the relationship between these factors and swallowing remains poorly understood. The aim of this review was to synthesize and characterize the literature pertaining to the influence of preoral factors on swallowing and nutritional outcomes in healthy individuals. METHOD We performed a scoping review, searching the databases of PubMed, CINAHL, Cochrane, and Scopus. Search terms included those related to swallowing, experience of preoral factors, and exclusionary terminology to reduce animal and pediatric literature. Our initial search revealed 5,560 unique articles, of which 153 met our inclusionary criteria and were accepted into the review. RESULTS Of the accepted articles, 78% were focused exclusively on nutritional outcomes, 17% were focused on both swallowing and nutritional outcomes, and 5% were focused on solely swallowing outcomes. Of the preoral factors examined, 99% were exteroceptive in nature (17% olfactory, 44% visual, 21% auditory, 7% tactile, 11% other), while 1% were proprioceptive in nature. CONCLUSIONS This review supports the influence of preoral factors on swallowing and nutritional outcomes. However, there is a large emphasis on the visual modality and on nutritional outcomes. Nearly none of the literature found in this review directly measured swallowing safety, efficiency, or physiology. Future work will benefit from a larger focus on proprioceptive preoral factors as they relate to swallowing outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Burdick
- Division of Geriatrics and Gerontology, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, William S. Middleton Veterans' Hospital, Madison, WI
| | - David Bayne
- Communication Disorders and Sciences Program, University of Oregon, Eugene
| | | | - Andrea Gilmore-Bykovskyi
- BerbeeWalsh Department of Emergency Medicine, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison
| | - Samantha Shune
- Communication Disorders and Sciences Program, University of Oregon, Eugene
| | - Nicole Rogus-Pulia
- Division of Geriatrics and Gerontology, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, William S. Middleton Veterans' Hospital, Madison, WI
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Bailey RL, Kwon K, Garcia C, Wang P. Fast food menu calorie labeling contexts as complex contributing factors to overeating. Appetite 2022; 173:105992. [DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2022.105992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Revised: 02/25/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Reents J, Seidel AK, Wiesner CD, Pedersen A. The Effect of Hunger and Satiety on Mood-Related Food Craving. Front Psychol 2020; 11:568908. [PMID: 33224061 PMCID: PMC7667273 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.568908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In addition to hunger, which results from food deprivation, fasting, or restrained eating, food craving is thought to be one of the major factors influencing eating behavior. Although food craving occurs in healthy humans with normal eating behavior, research suggests pronounced food craving to be a risk factor for binging food, which in turn might cause weight gain and obesity. In addition, negative mood seems to induce binge eating, although the underlying processes are not clearly understood. To examine these effects on momentary food craving more closely, we implemented a food cue-reactivity paradigm in 33 normal-weight females (mean age = 25.1 years, mean BMI = 21.6). Mood (negative vs. neutral) and state of food deprivation (hunger vs. satiety) were varied systematically. Self-rated craving was significantly higher in hungry compared to sated states. Moreover, in neutral mood, high-caloric foods modulated craving, i.e., hungry and sated participants preferred savory food and sweet food, respectively. In negative mood, this differential effect of savory and sweet items was absent. In summary, the state of hunger has a huge impact on food craving, which is further modulated by emotional state. Future research should consider hunger to be of high relevance for effects investigated in food-related paradigms. Our findings in healthy women of normal weight support etiological models of disturbed eating behavior and are in line with common interventions targeting eating schedules and mood regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janina Reents
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Institute of Psychology, Christian-Albrechts-University zu Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Ann-Kathrin Seidel
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Institute of Psychology, Christian-Albrechts-University zu Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Christian Dirk Wiesner
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Institute of Psychology, Christian-Albrechts-University zu Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Anya Pedersen
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Institute of Psychology, Christian-Albrechts-University zu Kiel, Kiel, Germany
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4
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Food-related attentional bias and its associations with appetitive motivation and body weight: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Appetite 2020; 157:104986. [PMID: 33039507 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2020.104986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Revised: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 10/01/2020] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Theoretical models suggest that food-related visual attentional bias (AB) may be related to appetitive motivational states and individual differences in body weight; however, findings in this area are equivocal. We conducted a systematic review and series of meta-analyses to determine if there is a positive association between food-related AB and: (1.) body mass index (BMI) (number of effect sizes (k) = 110), (2.) hunger (k = 98), (3.) subjective craving for food (k = 35), and (4.) food intake (k = 44). Food-related AB was robustly associated with craving (r = 0.134 (95% CI 0.061, 0.208); p < .001), food intake (r = 0.085 (95% CI 0.038, 0.132); p < .001), and hunger (r = 0.048 (95% CI 0.016, 0.079); p = .003), but these correlations were small. Food-related AB was unrelated to BMI (r = 0.008 (95% CI -0.020, 0.035); p = .583) and this result was not moderated by type of food stimuli, method of AB assessment, or the subcomponent of AB that was examined. Furthermore, in a between-groups analysis (k = 22) which directly compared participants with overweight/obesity to healthy-weight control groups, there was no evidence for an effect of weight status on food-related AB (Hedge's g = 0.104, (95% CI -0.050, 0.258); p = .186). Taken together, these findings suggest that food-related AB is sensitive to changes in the motivational value of food, but is unrelated to individual differences in body weight. Our findings question the traditional view of AB as a trait-like index of preoccupation with food and have implications for novel theoretical perspectives on the role of food AB in appetite control and obesity.
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5
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Kling SMR, Pearce AL, Reynolds ML, Garavan H, Geier CF, Rolls BJ, Rose EJ, Wilson SJ, Keller KL. Development and Pilot Testing of Standardized Food Images for Studying Eating Behaviors in Children. Front Psychol 2020; 11:1729. [PMID: 32793062 PMCID: PMC7385190 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Food images are routinely used to investigate the cognitive and neurobiological mechanisms of eating behaviors, but there is a lack of standardized image sets for use in children, which limits cross-study comparisons. To address this gap, we developed a set of age-appropriate images that included 30 high-energy-dense (ED) foods (>2.00 kcal/g), 30 low-ED foods (<1.75 kcal/g), and 30 office supplies photographed in two amounts (i.e., "larger" and "smaller"). Preliminary testing was conducted with children (6-10 years) to assess recognition, emotional valence (1 = very sad, 5 = very happy), and excitability (1 = very bored, 5 = very excited). After the initial testing, 10 images with low recognition were replaced; thus, differences between Image Set 1 and Image Set 2 were analyzed. Thirty (n = 30, mean age 8.3 ± 1.2 years) children rated Set 1, and a different cohort of 29 children (mean age 8.1 ± 1.1 years) rated Set 2. Changes made between image sets improved recognition of low-ED foods (Set 1 = 88.3 ± 10.5% vs. Set 2 = 95.6 ± 10.6%; p < 0.0001) and office supplies (83.7 ± 10.5 vs. 93.0 ± 10.6%; p < 0.0001). For the revised image set, children recognized more high-ED foods (98.4 ± 10.6%) than low-ED foods (95.6 ± 10.6%; p < 0.05) and office supplies (93.0 ± 10.6%; p < 0.0001). Recognition also improved with age (p < 0.001). Excitability and emotional valence scores were greater for high-ED foods compared with both low-ED foods and office supplies (p < 0.0001 for both). However, child fullness ratings influenced the relationship between excitability/emotional valence and category of item (p < 0.002). At the lowest fullness level, high-ED foods were rated the highest in both excitability and emotional valence, followed by low-ED foods and then office supplies. At the highest fullness level, high-ED foods remained the highest in excitability and emotional valence, but ratings for low-ED foods and office supplies were not different. This suggests that low-ED foods were more exciting and emotionally salient (relative to office supplies) when children were hungry. Ratings of recognition, excitability, and emotional valence did not differ by image amount. This new, freely available, image set showed high recognition and expected differences between image category for emotional valence and excitability. When investigating children's responsiveness to food cues, specifically energy density, it is essential for investigators to account for potential influences of child age and satiety level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha M R Kling
- Metabolic Kitchen and Children's Eating Behavior Laboratory, Department of Nutritional Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA, United States.,Evaluation Sciences Unit, Division of Primary Care and Population Health, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Alaina L Pearce
- Metabolic Kitchen and Children's Eating Behavior Laboratory, Department of Nutritional Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA, United States
| | - Marissa L Reynolds
- Metabolic Kitchen and Children's Eating Behavior Laboratory, Department of Nutritional Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA, United States
| | - Hugh Garavan
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont Medical School, Burlington, VT, United States.,Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Vermont Medical School, Burlington, VT, United States
| | - Charles F Geier
- Laboratory, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA, United States
| | - Barbara J Rolls
- Laboratory for the Study of Human Ingestive Behavior, Department of Nutritional Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA, United States
| | - Emma J Rose
- Laboratory, Prevention Research Center, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA, United States
| | - Stephen J Wilson
- Addiction Smoking and Health Laboratory, Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA, United States
| | - Kathleen L Keller
- Metabolic Kitchen and Children's Eating Behavior Laboratory, Department of Nutritional Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA, United States.,Metabolic Kitchen and Children's Eating Behavior Laboratory, Department of Food Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA, United States
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6
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Abstract
The conscious perception of the hedonic sensory properties of caloric foods is commonly believed to guide our dietary choices. Current and traditional models implicate the consciously perceived hedonic qualities of food as driving overeating, whereas subliminal signals arising from the gut would curb our uncontrolled desire for calories. Here we review recent animal and human studies that support a markedly different model for food reward. These findings reveal in particular the existence of subcortical body-to-brain neural pathways linking gastrointestinal nutrient sensors to the brain's reward regions. Unexpectedly, consciously perceptible hedonic qualities appear to play a less relevant, and mostly transient, role in food reinforcement. In this model, gut-brain reward pathways bypass cranial taste and aroma sensory receptors and the cortical networks that give rise to flavor perception. They instead reinforce behaviors independently of the cognitive processes that support overt insights into the nature of our dietary decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan E. de Araujo
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
- Modern Diet and Physiology Research Center, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, USA
| | - Mark Schatzker
- Modern Diet and Physiology Research Center, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, USA
| | - Dana M. Small
- Modern Diet and Physiology Research Center, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, USA
- Departments of Psychiatry and Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, USA
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Food craving predicts the consumption of highly palatable food but not bland food. Eat Weight Disord 2019; 24:693-704. [PMID: 31093926 DOI: 10.1007/s40519-019-00706-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2019] [Accepted: 04/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The impact of obesity on physical and psychological health is well recognized in the literature with, among others, evidence of alterations in cognition. Indeed, obese populations are characterized by lower executive functions as well as an enhanced food craving. However, the relationship between executive functions and food craving remains unexplored. Moreover, these two variables have also been shown to predict food intake, but studies in the context of obesity are lacking. Thus, this study had two objectives: (1) determining if executive functions and food craving are linked, and (2) examining the predictors of highly palatable food intake and bland food intake. First, it was hypothesized that executive functions would be negatively associated with food craving. Second, it was expected that food craving would predict positively highly palatable food intake but not bland food intake. Third, it was predicted that executive functions would predict negatively highly palatable food intake and positively bland food intake. 48 participants (34 females) with BMIs ranging from 17.9 to 46.4 took part in two experimental sessions. First, executive functions were assessed using the delayed discounting task (impulsivity towards food and money) and the color-word interference test (CWIT; inhibition/flexibility). Second, a cue-induced food craving protocol, with images as well as real food, was administered followed by an ad libitum food intake protocol including both highly palatable and bland food. The inhibition/flexibility condition of the CWIT was significantly and negatively correlated with food craving following induction. Highly palatable food intake was significantly predicted by food craving following induction, but bland food intake was not. This study reveals an association between lower inhibition/flexibility and susceptibility to food craving induction that is of great importance in obesogenic environments. Moreover, this study confirmed the link between food craving and food intake, and showed for the first time a specific contribution of food craving to highly palatable food intake but not to bland food intake, highlighting its potential influence in obesity. This work leads to future research questions regarding the possible benefits of cognitive remediation interventions, as well as interventions aiming at reducing food craving, in weight loss programs. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV, quasi-experimental study.
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Tonkin M, Kemps E, Prichard I, Polivy J, Herman CP, Tiggemann M. It's all in the timing: The effect of a healthy food cue on food choices from a pictorial menu. Appetite 2019; 139:105-109. [PMID: 31051198 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2019.04.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2019] [Revised: 04/08/2019] [Accepted: 04/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The contemporary food-rich environment has been consistently linked to unhealthy eating. Emerging research suggests that changing the presentation context of unhealthy foods by introducing a subtle nudge in the form of a healthy food cue may promote healthier dietary choices. This study investigated the effect of the timing of a healthy food cue (before or simultaneously with food options) on food choices. Participants (n = 210) were presented with a pictorial café-style menu displaying a healthy food cue (basket of fruit and vegetables) either on the menu cover or inside the menu, or they received a control menu. Participants were asked to make one choice from each of three menu sections (meals, beverages, afters), and then completed a measure of dietary restraint. As predicted, participants chose a greater proportion of healthy food from the healthy-cue-before menu compared to both the healthy-cue-simultaneous and control menus. Furthermore, this effect was stronger for restrained eaters. The findings demonstrate that the timing of presentation of a healthy food cue is critical, and could be used to inform the design of menus in real-world environments, such as cafés and fast-food outlets, to promote healthier dietary choices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Tonkin
- School of Psychology, Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Eva Kemps
- School of Psychology, Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia.
| | | | - Janet Polivy
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Canada
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9
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Poelman MP, Dijkstra SC, Sponselee H, Kamphuis CBM, Battjes-Fries MCE, Gillebaart M, Seidell JC. Towards the measurement of food literacy with respect to healthy eating: the development and validation of the self perceived food literacy scale among an adult sample in the Netherlands. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 2018; 15:54. [PMID: 29914503 PMCID: PMC6006995 DOI: 10.1186/s12966-018-0687-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2017] [Accepted: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Food literacy refers to the capability to make healthy food choices in different contexts, settings and situations. The aim of this study is to develop and validate the self-perceived food literacy (SPFL) scale, to assess individuals’ level of food literacy, including a knowledge, skills and behavior to plan, manage, select, prepare and eat food healthfully. Methods An initial set of 50 items for the SPFL scale were generated based on expert insights and literature. A cross-sectional online survey was conducted among a sample of Dutch adults (n = 755) in order to determine convergent, divergent and criterion validation against psychosocial variables that were expected to correlate with food literacy (self-control, impulsiveness) and against the expected outcome of high food literacy, namely healthy food consumption. Principal Component Analyses (PCA), Pearson correlation tests and linear regression analyses were conducted. The capacity to distinguish of the SPFL scale was determined by comparing SPFL scores of the general population with that of a sample of dieticians (n = 207). Results The participants in the general sample had an average age of 44.8 (SD:16.1), the majority were women (90.7%), they had a healthy weight (61.4%) and were highly educated (59.1%). Of the initial 50 items, 29 items remained after PCA and reflected eight domains of food literacy. SPFL was positively correlated with self-control (r = 0.51, p = <.001) and negatively with impulsiveness (r = − 0.31, p = <.01). Participants with higher levels of food literacy reported a significantly higher frequency of fruit consumption (≥5 times/week), vegetable consumption (≥5times/week) and fish consumption (≥1times/week) and consumed larger portions of fruit (≥2pieces/day) and vegetables ≥200 g/day) in comparison with participants who had lower levels of food literacy. Dieticians had slightly higher scores on SPFL than general adults (B = 0.08, SE = 0.03, t = 2.83, 95%-CI = 0.03 to 0.14). Conclusions The 29 item SPFL scale is a validated, expert-based and theory-driven tool for measuring self-perceived food literacy with respect to healthy eating among adults. Higher levels of food literacy were associated with more self-control, less impulsiveness and healthier food consumption. Additional research is needed to validate the SPFL scale in different populations (different age groups, socioeconomic groups, male populations) and in different contexts. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12966-018-0687-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maartje P Poelman
- Department of Human Geography and Spatial Planning, Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht University, Princetonlaan 8a, 3584 CB, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - S Coosje Dijkstra
- Amsterdam Public Health research institute, Department of Health Sciences, Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences, VU-University Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Hanne Sponselee
- Department of Social Health and Organizational Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Carlijn B M Kamphuis
- Department of Interdisciplinary Sciences, Utrecht University, PO Box 80140, 3508 TC, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Marieke C E Battjes-Fries
- Department of Health and Nutrition, Louis Bolk Institute, Kosterijland 3-5, 3981 AJ, Bunnik, The Netherlands
| | - Marleen Gillebaart
- Department of Social Health and Organizational Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jacob C Seidell
- Amsterdam Public Health research institute, Department of Health Sciences, Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences, VU-University Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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Robinson E, Haynes A, Hardman CA, Kemps E, Higgs S, Jones A. The bogus taste test: Validity as a measure of laboratory food intake. Appetite 2017; 116:223-231. [PMID: 28476629 PMCID: PMC5504774 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2017.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2017] [Revised: 04/27/2017] [Accepted: 05/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Because overconsumption of food contributes to ill health, understanding what affects how much people eat is of importance. The ‘bogus’ taste test is a measure widely used in eating behaviour research to identify factors that may have a causal effect on food intake. However, there has been no examination of the validity of the bogus taste test as a measure of food intake. We conducted a participant level analysis of 31 published laboratory studies that used the taste test to measure food intake. We assessed whether the taste test was sensitive to experimental manipulations hypothesized to increase or decrease food intake. We examined construct validity by testing whether participant sex, hunger and liking of taste test food were associated with the amount of food consumed in the taste test. In addition, we also examined whether BMI (body mass index), trait measures of dietary restraint and over-eating in response to palatable food cues were associated with food consumption. Results indicated that the taste test was sensitive to experimental manipulations hypothesized to increase or decrease food intake. Factors that were reliably associated with increased consumption during the taste test were being male, have a higher baseline hunger, liking of the taste test food and a greater tendency to overeat in response to palatable food cues, whereas trait dietary restraint and BMI were not. These results indicate that the bogus taste test is likely to be a valid measure of food intake and can be used to identify factors that have a causal effect on food intake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Robinson
- Institute of Psychology, Health & Society, University of Liverpool, UK.
| | - Ashleigh Haynes
- Institute of Psychology, Health & Society, University of Liverpool, UK
| | | | - Eva Kemps
- School of Psychology, Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Suzanne Higgs
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, UK
| | - Andrew Jones
- Institute of Psychology, Health & Society, University of Liverpool, UK
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11
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The purposes of the present review are to organize the recent literature on the effects of food cues on restrained and unrestrained eaters and to determine current directions in such work. RECENT FINDINGS Research over the last several years involves both replicating the work showing that restrained eaters respond to attractive food cues by eating more but unrestrained eaters show less responsiveness and extending this work to examine the mechanisms that might underlie this differential responsiveness. Labeling a food as healthy encourages more eating by restrained eaters, while diet-priming cues seem to curtail their consumption even in the face of attractive food cues. Work on cognitive responses indicates that restrained (but not unrestrained) eaters have both attention and memory biases toward food cues. Restrained eaters attend more strongly to food- and diet-related cues than do unrestrained eaters, as evidenced in both their eating behavior and their attention and memory responses to such cues. These effects interact with expectations and manner of presentation of such cues. What remains to be understood is the meaning and mechanism of the attention bias toward food cues in restrained eaters and the implications of such bias for overeating and overweight more broadly speaking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janet Polivy
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada.
| | - C Peter Herman
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
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