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Modesto T, Neves Gregório B, Marcelino G, Marquet N, Costa RA, Guerreiro PM, Velez Z, Hubbard PC. Anatomy of the olfactory system and potential role for chemical communication in the sound-producing Lusitanian toadfish, Halobatrachus didactylus. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2024; 105:59-71. [PMID: 38634148 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.15751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2024] [Revised: 03/18/2024] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024]
Abstract
The current study investigated the structure and function of the olfactory system of the Lusitanian toadfish, Halobatrachus didactylus, using histology and electrophysiology (electro-olfactogram [EOG]), respectively. The olfactory system consists of a digitated anterior peduncle, of unknown function, containing the inhalant nostril. This then leads to a U-shaped olfactory chamber with the olfactory epithelium-identified by Gαolf-immunoreactivity-on the ventral surface. A large lacrimal sac is connected to this tube and is likely involved in generating water movement through the olfactory chamber (this species is largely sedentary). The exhalent nostril lies by the eye and is preceded by a bicuspid valve to ensure one-way flow of water. As do other teleosts, H. didactylus had olfactory sensitivity to amino acids and bile acids. Large-amplitude EOG responses were evoked by fluid from the anterior and posterior testicular accessory glands, and bile and intestinal fluids. Anterior gland and intestinal fluids from reproductive males were significantly more potent than those from non-reproductive males. Male urine and skin mucus proved to be the least potent body fluids tested. These results suggest that chemical communication-as well as acoustic communication-may be important in the reproduction of this species and that this may be mediated by the accessory glands and intestinal fluid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Modesto
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR/CIMAR LA), Campus de Gambelas, Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal
| | - Beatriz Neves Gregório
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR/CIMAR LA), Campus de Gambelas, Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal
| | - Gonçalo Marcelino
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR/CIMAR LA), Campus de Gambelas, Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal
| | - Nathalie Marquet
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR/CIMAR LA), Campus de Gambelas, Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal
| | - Rita A Costa
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR/CIMAR LA), Campus de Gambelas, Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal
| | - Pedro M Guerreiro
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR/CIMAR LA), Campus de Gambelas, Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal
| | - Zélia Velez
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR/CIMAR LA), Campus de Gambelas, Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal
| | - Peter C Hubbard
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR/CIMAR LA), Campus de Gambelas, Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal
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Zhang D, Mohammed H, Ye Z, Rhodes MA, Thongda W, Zhao H, Jescovitch LN, Fuller SA, Davis DA, Peatman E. Transcriptomic profiles of Florida pompano (Trachinotus carolinus) gill following infection by the ectoparasite Amyloodiniumocellatum. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2022; 125:171-179. [PMID: 35569776 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2022.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Revised: 05/06/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The dinoflagellate Amyloodinium ocellatum is an important pathogenic parasite infecting cultured marine and brackish water fishes worldwide. This includes cultured Florida pompano (Trachinotus carolinus), which is one of the most desirable marine food fish with high economic value in the USA. A. ocellatum infects fish gills and causes tissue damage, increased respiratory rate, reduced appetite, and mortality, especially in closed aquaculture systems. This study mimicked the natural infection of A. ocellatum in cultured pompano and conducted a transcriptomic comparison of gene expression in the gills of control and A. ocellatum infected fish to explore the molecular mechanisms of infection. RNA-seq data revealed 604 differentially expressed genes in the infected fish gills. The immunoglobulin genes (including IgM/T) augmentation and IL1 inflammation suppression were detected after infection. Genes involved in reactive oxygen species mediating parasite killing were also highly induced. However, excessive oxidants have been linked to oxidative tissue damage and apoptosis. Correspondingly, widespread down-regulation of collagen genes and growth factor deprivation indicated impaired tissue repair, and meanwhile the key executor of apoptosis, caspase-3 was highly expressed (25.02-fold) in infected fish. The infection also influenced the respiratory gas sensing and transport genes and established hypoxic conditions in the gill tissue. Additionally, food intake and lipid metabolism were also affected. Our work provides the transcriptome sequencing of Florida pompano and provides key insights into the acute pathogenesis of A. ocellatum. This information can be utilized for designing optimal disease surveillance strategies, future selection for host resistance, and development of novel therapeutic measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongdong Zhang
- College of Marine Sciences, Hainan University, Haikou, Hainan, 570228, PR China; School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Haitham Mohammed
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA; Department of Aquatic Animal Medicine and Management, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut, 71526, Egypt
| | - Zhi Ye
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Melanie A Rhodes
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Wilawan Thongda
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA; Center of Excellence for Shrimp Molecular Biology and Biotechnology (CENTEX Shrimp), Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand; National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), Pathum Thani, 12120, Thailand
| | - Honggang Zhao
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Lauren N Jescovitch
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - S Adam Fuller
- USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Harry K. Dupree Stuttgart National Aquaculture Research Center, 2955 Highway 130 East, Stuttgart, AR, 72160, USA
| | - D Allen Davis
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Eric Peatman
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA.
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Crane AL, Bairos‐Novak KR, Goldman JA, Brown GE. Chemical disturbance cues in aquatic systems: a review and prospectus. ECOL MONOGR 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ecm.1487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Adam L. Crane
- Department of Biology Concordia University Montreal Quebec H4B 1R6 Canada
| | - Kevin R. Bairos‐Novak
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies & College of Science and Engineering James Cook University Townsville Queensland 4811 Australia
| | - Jack A. Goldman
- Institute of Forestry and Conservation University of Toronto Toronto Ontario M5S 3B3 Canada
| | - Grant E. Brown
- Department of Biology Concordia University Montreal Quebec H4B 1R6 Canada
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Cartolano MC, Babcock EA, McDonald MD. Evidence that Gulf toadfish use pulsatile urea excretion to communicate social status. Physiol Behav 2020; 227:113182. [PMID: 32976848 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2020.113182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Revised: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Gulf toadfish (Opsanus beta), a highly territorial marine teleost species, are believed to communicate through chemicals released across the gill during pulsatile urea excretion. While freshwater teleost and crustacean urinary signals have been shown to relay information about dominance to reduce physical aggression in future encounters, the use of chemical signals to convey social status in marine teleosts is understudied. Behavior and urea excretion patterns were monitored in pairs of male toadfish during an initial agonistic encounter and in a 2nd encounter where a subset of pairs had their nares blocked to determine how olfaction, and thus chemical communication, play a role in establishing dominance. Anosmic toadfish did not experience increases in aggressive behavior, unlike other species previously studied. However, behavior and the pattern of urea excretion were disrupted in anosmic pairs compared to control pairs. Specifically, control subordinate fish had an increase in their dominance index during the 2nd encounter, a response that anosmic subordinate fish did not experience suggesting that without the ability to smell, subordinate fish cannot recognize their opponent and assess their fighting ability and have a reduced chance of winning. These anosmic subordinate fish also had an increase in pulse frequency, perhaps reflecting an increased effort in communication of status. Future research is needed to conclude if peaks in agonistic behavior are coordinated around the time of urea pules. However, the observed changes in behavior and pulsatile urea excretion due to anosmia in the present study provide evidence that toadfish use pulsatile urea excretion to release signals for chemical communication during agonistic encounters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria C Cartolano
- Department of Marine Biology and Ecology, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA.
| | - Elizabeth A Babcock
- Department of Marine Biology and Ecology, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA
| | - M Danielle McDonald
- Department of Marine Biology and Ecology, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA
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Goldman JA, Feyten LEA, Ramnarine IW, Brown GE. Sender and receiver experience alters the response of fish to disturbance cues. Curr Zool 2020; 66:255-261. [PMID: 32440286 PMCID: PMC7234198 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoz050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2019] [Accepted: 10/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Predation is a pervasive selection pressure, shaping morphological, physiological, and behavioral phenotypes of prey species. Recent studies have begun to examine how the effects of individual experience with predation risk shapes the use of publicly available risk assessment cues. Here, we investigated the effects of prior predation risk experience on disturbance cue production and use by Trinidadian guppies Poecilia reticulata under laboratory conditions. In our first experiment, we demonstrate that the response of guppies from a high predation population (Lopinot River) was dependent upon the source of disturbance cue senders (high vs. low predation populations). However, guppies collected from a low predation site (Upper Aripo River) exhibited similar responses to disturbance cues, regardless of the sender population. In our second experiment, we used laboratory strain guppies exposed to high versus low background risk conditions. Our results show an analogous response patterns as shown for our first experiment. Guppies exposed to high background risk conditions exhibited stronger responses to the disturbance cues collected from senders exposed to high (vs. low) risk conditions and guppies exposed to low risk conditions were not influenced by sender experience. Combined, our results suggest that experience with background predation risk significantly impacts both the production of and response to disturbance cues in guppies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack A Goldman
- Department of Biology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke St. West, Montreal, QC, H4B 1R6, Canada
| | - Laurence E A Feyten
- Department of Biology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke St. West, Montreal, QC, H4B 1R6, Canada
| | - Indar W Ramnarine
- Department of Life Sciences, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Grant E Brown
- Department of Biology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke St. West, Montreal, QC, H4B 1R6, Canada
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Cartolano MC, Chng Y, McDonald MD. Do reproductive hormones control Gulf toadfish pulsatile urea excretion? Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2019; 238:110561. [PMID: 31499168 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2019.110561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2019] [Revised: 08/14/2019] [Accepted: 08/30/2019] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Gulf toadfish (Opsanus beta) can excrete the majority of their nitrogenous waste as urea in distinct pulses across their gill. Urea pulses are controlled by cortisol and serotonin (5-HT) and are believed to contain chemical signals that may communicate reproductive and/or social status. The objectives of this study were to determine if reproductive hormones are involved in controlling pulsatile urea excretion, and if toadfish respond to prostaglandins as a chemical signal. Specifically, 11-ketotestosterone (11-KT), estradiol (E2), and the teleost pheromone prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) were investigated. Castration during breeding season did not affect pulsatile urea excretion but serial injections of 11-KT outside of breeding season did result in a 48% reduction in urea pulse size in fish of both sexes. Injections of E2 and PGE2, on the other hand, did not alter urea excretion patterns. Toadfish also did not pulse urea in response to waterborne exposure of PGE2 suggesting that this compound does not serve as a toadfish pheromone alone. Toadfish have significantly higher plasma 5-HT during breeding season compared to the months following breeding season. Future research should focus on the composition of the chemical signal in toadfish and the potential importance of seasonal changes in plasma 5-HT in toadfish pulsatile urea excretion and teleost reproduction in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria C Cartolano
- Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA.
| | - Yi Chng
- Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA
| | - M Danielle McDonald
- Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA
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Cartolano MC, Gancel HN, Lonthair J, Wood CM, McDonald MD. Pulsatile urea excretion in Gulf toadfish: the role of circulating serotonin and additional 5-HT receptor subtypes. J Comp Physiol B 2019; 189:537-548. [DOI: 10.1007/s00360-019-01223-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Revised: 04/28/2019] [Accepted: 06/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Cartolano MC, Tullis-Joyce P, Kubicki K, McDonald MD. Do Gulf Toadfish Use Pulsatile Urea Excretion to Chemically Communicate Reproductive Status? Physiol Biochem Zool 2019; 92:125-139. [PMID: 30657409 DOI: 10.1086/701497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Gulf toadfish (Opsanus beta) are exceptionally capable of switching from excreting ammonia as their primary nitrogenous waste to excreting predominantly urea in distinct pulses across the gill. Previous studies suggest that these urea pulses may be used for intraspecific chemical communication. To determine whether pulsatile urea excretion communicates reproductive status, toadfish were sexed using ultrasound and delivered conspecific-conditioned seawater (CC-SW) that previously housed a conspecific of the opposite sex, a conspecific chemical alarm cue (avoidance control), or a prey cue (attraction control). Swim behavior, attraction to or avoidance of the cues, and changes in the pattern of pulsatile urea excretion were monitored during and after delivery. Gulf toadfish did not spend more time in zones that were delivered CC-SW or prey cue. However, male toadfish spent significantly more time swimming after the delivery of female cues than control seawater (SW). In contrast, toadfish did not appear to have an immediate avoidance response to the conspecific alarm cue. Additionally, significantly more toadfish pulsed within 7 h of CC-SW and prey cue delivery compared to control SW, and pulse frequency was 1.6 times greater in response to CC-SW than control SW. These results, in combination with increased urea production and excretion the during breeding season, suggest that toadfish may use pulsatile urea excretion to communicate with conspecifics when exposed to chemosensory cues from the opposite sex.
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Amador MHB, McDonald MD. The serotonin transporter and nonselective transporters are involved in peripheral serotonin uptake in the Gulf toadfish, Opsanus beta. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2018; 315:R1154-R1166. [PMID: 30303705 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00137.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
In mammals, circulating serotonin [5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)] is sequestered by platelets via the 5-HT transporter (SERT) to prevent unintended signaling by this potent signaling molecule. Teleost fish appear to lack a similar circulating storage pool, although the diverse effects of 5-HT in teleosts likely necessitate an alternative method of tight regulation, such as uptake by peripheral tissues. Here, a 5-HT radiotracer was used to explore the 5-HT uptake capacity of peripheral tissues in the Gulf toadfish, Opsanus beta, and to elucidate the primary excretion routes of 5-HT and its metabolites. Pharmacological inhibition of SERT and other transporters enabled assessment of the SERT dependence of peripheral 5-HT uptake and excretion. The results indicated a rapid and substantial uptake of 5-HT by the heart atrium, heart ventricle, and gill that was at least partly SERT dependent. The results also supported the presence of a partial blood-brain barrier that prevented rapid changes in brain 5-HT content despite fluctuating plasma 5-HT concentrations. The renal pathway appeared to be the dominant excretory route for 5-HT and its metabolites over shorter time frames (up to ~30 min), but hepatic excretion was substantial over several hours. SERT inhibition ultimately reduced the excretion of 5-HT and its metabolites by urinary, biliary, and/or intestinal pathways. In addition, branchial excretion of 5-HT and its metabolites could not be ruled out. In summary, this study reveals that the toadfish heart and gill play active roles in regulating circulating 5-HT and yields important insights into the control of peripheral 5-HT in this teleost fish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Molly H B Amador
- Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami , Miami, Florida
| | - M Danielle McDonald
- Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami , Miami, Florida
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Bairos-Novak KR, Mitchell MD, Crane AL, Chivers DP, Ferrari MCO. Trust thy neighbour in times of trouble: background risk alters how tadpoles release and respond to disturbance cues. Proc Biol Sci 2018; 284:rspb.2017.1465. [PMID: 28954912 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2017.1465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2017] [Accepted: 08/30/2017] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
In aquatic environments, uninjured prey escaping a predator release chemical disturbance cues into the water. However, it is unknown whether these cues are a simple physiological by-product of increased activity or whether they represent a social signal that is under some control by the sender. Here, we exposed wood frog tadpoles (Lithobates sylvaticus) to either a high or low background risk environment and tested their responses to disturbance cues (or control cues) produced by tadpoles from high-risk or low-risk backgrounds. We found an interaction between risk levels associated with the cue donor and cue recipient. While disturbance cues from low-risk donors did not elicit an antipredator response in low-risk receivers, they did in high-risk receivers. In addition, disturbance cues from high-risk donors elicited a marked antipredator response in both low- and high-risk receivers. The response of high-risk receivers to disturbance cues from high-risk donors was commensurate with other treatments, indicating an all-or-nothing response. Our study provides evidence of differential production and perception of social cues and provides insights into their function and evolution in aquatic vertebrates. Given the widespread nature of disturbance cues in aquatic prey, there may exist a social signalling system that remains virtually unexplored by ecologists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin R Bairos-Novak
- Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, 112 Science Place, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada S7N 5E2
| | - Matthew D Mitchell
- Department of Veterinary Biomedical Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, 52 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada S7N 5B4
| | - Adam L Crane
- Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, 112 Science Place, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada S7N 5E2
| | - Douglas P Chivers
- Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, 112 Science Place, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada S7N 5E2
| | - Maud C O Ferrari
- Department of Veterinary Biomedical Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, 52 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada S7N 5B4
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Cartolano MC, Amador MHB, Tzaneva V, Milsom WK, McDonald MD. Extrinsic nerves are not involved in branchial 5-HT dynamics or pulsatile urea excretion in Gulf toadfish, Opsanus beta. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2017; 214:58-65. [PMID: 28887162 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2017.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2017] [Revised: 08/24/2017] [Accepted: 08/25/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Gulf toadfish (Opsanus beta) can switch from continuously excreting ammonia as their primary nitrogenous waste to excreting predominantly urea in distinct pulses. Previous studies have shown that the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-HT) is involved in controlling this process, but it is unknown if 5-HT availability is under central nervous control or if the 5-HT signal originates from a peripheral source. Following up on a previous study, cranial nerves IX (glossopharyngeal) and X (vagus) were sectioned to further characterize their role in controlling pulsatile urea excretion and 5-HT release within the gill. In contrast to an earlier study, nerve sectioning did not result in a change in urea pulse frequency. Total urea excretion, average pulse size, total nitrogen excretion, and percent ureotely were reduced the first day post-surgery in nerve-sectioned fish but recovered by 72h post-surgery. Nerve sectioning also had no effect on toadfish urea transporter (tUT), 5-HT transporter (SERT), or 5-HT2A receptor mRNA expression or 5-HT and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) abundance in the gill, all of which were found consistently across the three gill arches except 5-HIAA, which was undetectable in the first gill arch. Our findings indicate that the central nervous system does not directly control pulsatile urea excretion or local changes in gill 5-HT and 5-HIAA abundance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria C Cartolano
- Department of Marine Biology and Ecology, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA.
| | - Molly H B Amador
- Department of Marine Biology and Ecology, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Velislava Tzaneva
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - William K Milsom
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - M Danielle McDonald
- Department of Marine Biology and Ecology, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA
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