The effect of menstrual cycle and exercise intensity on psychological and physiological responses in healthy eumenorrheic women

Polarized running training adapted to versus contrary to the menstrual cycle phases has similar effects on endurance performance and cardiovascular parameters

PURPOSE

This study compared the effects of polarized running training adapted to the menstrual cycle (MC) phases versus polarized training adapted contrary to the MC on endurance performance and cardiovascular parameters.

METHODS

Thirty-three naturally menstruating, moderately trained females (age: 26 ± 4 years; BMI: 22.3 ± 3.2 kg/m2; V ˙ O2max/rel: 40.35 ± 4.61 ml/min/kg) were randomly assigned to a control (CON) and intervention (INT) group. Both groups participated in a load-matched eight-week running training intervention. In the INT, high-intensity sessions were aligned with the mid and late follicular phase, low-intensity sessions with the early and mid-luteal phase, and recovery with the late luteal and early follicular phase. In the CON, high-intensity sessions were matched to the late luteal and early follicular phase, and recovery to the mid and late follicular phase. Endurance performance and cardiovascular parameters were assessed at baseline and after the intervention.

RESULTS

Twenty-six females completed the intervention. A repeated measures ANOVA determined no time × group interaction effect for any parameter. A significant time effect was found for maximal oxygen uptake (F(1,12) = 18.753, p = 0.005, ηp2 = 0.630), the velocity at the ventilatory threshold one (F(1,12) = 10.704, p = 0.007, ηp2 = 0.493) and two (F(1,12) = 7.746, p = .018, ηp2 = .413).

CONCLUSION

The training intervention improved endurance performance in both groups, with no further benefit observed from the MC-adapted polarized training in a group-based analysis. Replications with an extended intervention period, a larger sample size, and a more reliable MC determination are warranted.

Psychophysiological Responses to High-Intensity Interval Training Exercise over Menstrual Cycle Phases: An Exploratory Study

INTRODUCTION

Although there is potential for the menstrual cycle to impact psychophysiological responses to exercise, there has been a paucity of studies investigating this aspect, specifically in the context of high-intensity interval training (HIIT).

PURPOSE

This exploratory study aimed to examine the psychophysiological responses to HIIT over the menstrual cycle.

METHODS

Twenty-three healthy and physically active young women were recruited. Each woman completed a cycle ergometer HIIT session in the menstrual, follicular, and luteal phases of the menstrual cycle in a random order. Psychophysiological variables of interest were collected at baseline, and during and after exercise. Primary variables of interest were anxiety, mood, motivation, enjoyment, arousal, affect, and menstrual distress.

RESULTS

Higher pain, water retention, behavior change (related to social interactions, eating habits, and self-performance), and autonomic reactions (consisting of nausea, dizziness, hot flashes, and cold sweats) were observed before HIIT during the menstrual phase compared with the follicular phase ( P < 0.05). Participants exhibited worse psychological responses to HIIT sessions during the menstrual phase, followed by the luteal phase. Findings also noted participants arrived to the laboratory with lower motivation to initiate HIIT sessions during the luteal and menstrual phases compared with the follicular phase. This difference was observed before and during HIIT. Motivation and depressive symptoms showed a significant reduction from pre-HIIT to post-HIIT ( P < 0.05), regardless of menstrual phase.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings revealed that the menstrual cycle had a significant impact on psychophysiological responses. Moreover, HIIT could be adopted to improve motivation and depressive symptoms; however, further research is needed to explore the effects of HIIT across the menstrual cycle in women with clinical depression.

The Effect of Cannabidiol on Subjective Responses to Endurance Exercise: A Randomised Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

Exercise is known to improve health. However, it can be unpleasant, often inducing negative feelings, or 'affect'. Cannabidiol (CBD), a non-intoxicating constituent of the cannabis plant, has been reported to enhance the subjective experience of exercise; specifically, in trained individuals performing fixed-intensity endurance activity. Here, we investigated the effects of CBD on subjective responses to exercise under more ecologically valid conditions; namely, in recreationally active individuals performing self-paced endurance activity.

METHODS

A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover trial was conducted at Griffith University between July 17 and August 28, 2023. Griffith University students studying sports nutrition were invited to take part, with eligible volunteers ≥ 18 years of age and able to perform endurance exercise. Participants ingested placebo or 150 mg CBD in two soft-gel capsules 90 min before completing a self-paced 25-lap (10 km) run around an outdoor athletics track (400 m, synthetic). The primary outcomes were affective valence during exercise, assessed on completion of laps 6, 12, 18 and 24 using the 'Feelings Scale', and positive and negative affect, assessed at baseline, pre-run and post-run using the 'Positive and Negative Affect Schedule'. Exercise enjoyment, motivation and self-efficacy, the core features of the 'runner's high' (i.e., euphoria, pain, anxiety, sedation), perceived exertion and run time were also assessed.

RESULTS

Fifty-two participants were randomised and 51 were included in the final sample (n = 22 female; 22 [21-25] years). Exercise induced negative affect (i.e., at the time of undertaking) and increased pain. CBD did not counteract either response. In fact, CBD had no significant effects on any of the outcomes measured. In contrast, exercise, once completed, increased positive affect, and decreased negative affect and anxiety.

CONCLUSIONS

CBD (150 mg, oral) does not appear to enhance the subjective experience of self-paced endurance exercise in recreationally active individuals. Nor, however, does it appear to compromise it. These findings suggest that CBD use is safe under exercise conditions and unlikely to impede physical activity participation. Our study also reaffirms the powerful mood-enhancing effects of exercise.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Registered with the Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry ( www.anzctr.org.au ) on May 31, 2023 (Trial ID: ACTRN12623000593639).

Menstrual cycle hormones and oral contraceptives: a multimethod systems physiology-based review of their impact on key aspects of female physiology

Hormonal changes around ovulation divide the menstrual cycle (MC) into the follicular and luteal phases. In addition, oral contraceptives (OCs) have active (higher hormone) and placebo phases. Although there are some MC-based effects on various physiological outcomes, we found these differences relatively subtle and difficult to attribute to specific hormones, as estrogen and progesterone fluctuate rather than operating in a complete on/off pattern as observed in cellular or preclinical models often used to substantiate human data. A broad review reveals that the differences between the follicular and luteal phases and between OC active and placebo phases are not associated with marked differences in exercise performance and appear unlikely to influence muscular hypertrophy in response to resistance exercise training. A systematic review and meta-analysis of substrate oxidation between MC phases revealed no difference between phases in the relative carbohydrate and fat oxidation at rest and during acute aerobic exercise. Vascular differences between MC phases are also relatively small or nonexistent. Although OCs can vary in composition and androgenicity, we acknowledge that much more work remains to be done in this area; however, based on what little evidence is currently available, we do not find compelling support for the notion that OC use significantly influences exercise performance, substrate oxidation, or hypertrophy. It is important to note that the study of females requires better methodological control in many areas. Previous studies lacking such rigor have contributed to premature or incorrect conclusions regarding the effects of the MC and systemic hormones on outcomes. While we acknowledge that the evidence in certain research areas is limited, the consensus view is that the impact of the MC and OC use on various aspects of physiology is small or nonexistent.

The Effect of Growth and Body Surface Area on Cardiopulmonary Exercise Testing: A Cohort Study in Preadolescent Female Swimmers

BACKGROUND

The performance of young swimmers is the result of a multifactorial process that is influenced by anthropometric characteristics and biological maturation. The purpose of our study was to investigate the effect of stages of biological maturation and body surface area on cardiopulmonary fitness indicators in preadolescent female swimmers, for whom menstruation has not started.

METHODS

Thirty female preadolescent swimmers (age 13.4 ± 1.0 years) participated in this study. We recorded anthropometric and morphological characteristics, stages of biological maturation, and pulmonary function parameters, and the swimmers underwent cardiopulmonary exercise testing.

RESULTS

The cut-off was set for body surface area (BSA) at 1.6 m2 and for biological maturation stages at score 3. The BSA results showed differences in variabilities in maximal effort oxygen pulse (p < 0.001), oxygen uptake (p < 0.001), ventilation (p = 0.041), tidal volume (p < 0.001), and oxygen breath (p < 0.001). Tanner stage score results showed differences in variabilities in maximal effort breath frequency (p < 0.001), tidal volume (p = 0.013), and oxygen breath (p = 0.045). Biological maturation stages and BSA were correlated during maximal effort with oxygen breath (p < 0.001; p < 0.001), oxygen uptake (p = 0.002; p < 0.001), and oxygen pulse (p < 0.001; p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, the findings of our study showed that the girls who had a smaller body surface area and biological maturation stage presented lower values in maximal oxygen uptake and greater respiratory work.

Psychophysiological Responses to Self-Selected Exercise Intensity Over the Menstrual Cycle: A Randomized Crossover Phase Trial

Purpose: This study investigated the psychophysiological responses during self-selected exercise intensity over the course of the menstrual cycle (MC). Methods: Seventeen healthy women with regular MCs completed three randomized treadmill bouts of 30 min of self-selected exercise intensity during menstruation, mid-follicular, and late luteal phases. Anxiety, menstrual distress (i.e., pain, behavior change, autonomic reaction, fluid retention, and negative affect) and profile of mood (i.e., tension, depression, and anger) were measured before exercise. Arousal, heart rate (HR), motivation, rating of perceived exertion and affective valence were measured before, during and after each exercise session. Results: Anger, anxiety, behavior change, pain, and negative affect were significantly greater (p < .05) during menstruation compared to the mid-follicular phase, whereas fluid retention, anger, behavior change, and autonomic reaction were greater (p < .05) during the late luteal phase compared with the mid-follicular phase. Participants felt more negative affective valence and less motivation to start exercise during menstruation compared with other MC phases. Average treadmill speed (5.8 ± 1.1 vs 6.0 ± 0.7 vs 5.9 ± 0.7 km/h-1, p = .36) and %HRmax (74.9 ± 3.2 vs 77.8 ± 5.4 vs 77.4 ± 7.1%, p = .40) did not differ between menstruation, mid-follicular, and late luteal phases. Also, noteworthy is that participants self-selected an intensity that exceeded the minimum levels recommended for health and cardiorespiratory fitness promotion (64-70% HRmax). Conclusions: Results of this study indicate that psychophysiological responses are negatively impacted mainly during menstruation and the late luteal phase of the MC. These findings may be helpful for professionals who work to promote the initiation and maintenance of exercise in women.

Effects of Essential Amino Acids on High-Intensity Interval Training Performance, Fatigue Outcomes, and Workload Progression

OBJECTIVE

To explore the effects of essential amino acid (EAA) supplementation on high-intensity interval training (HIIT) fatigue, perceived exertion, and training progression in overweight and obese adults. A secondary aim was to explore potential sex-differences on these outcomes.

METHODS

Thirty-seven untrained adults (51% female; 36.2 ± 5.9 yrs; 35.5 ± 6.7% body fat) completed eight weeks of HIIT, 2d/wk on a cycle ergometer, either with EAA supplementation (HIIT + EAA; 3.6 g of EAA twice daily, 30 minutes pre and post HIIT) or without supplementation (HIIT). Heart rate (HR) and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were recorded throughout each session as indices of within training fatigue. Time to exhaustion (TTE) was recorded for the final interval of each session. Workload progression was determined by change in watts. Differences between groups (with and without EAA) were evaluated at 1wk, 4wks, and 8wks by repeated measure ANOVAs (α = 0.05).

RESULTS

There were no differences in TTE (p = 0.983) or workload progression (p = 0.655) with EAA supplementation at any time point. HR and RPE within HIIT sessions were not significantly different with EAA supplementation at any time point (p > 0.05). Results were similar when evaluating males and females separately, but in females, RPE was significantly lower with EAA supplementation at 4wks (Δ: 1.1-2.2; p = 0.016).

CONCLUSION

EAA supplementation did not extend TTE during exercise or enhance workload progression across eight weeks of HIIT in untrained, overweight and obese adults. However, EAA consumed 30 minutes before exercise may reduce perceived exertion during the first four weeks of training in women, which may have implications for overall exercise enjoyment and long-term adherence.

Effect of transcranial direct current stimulation on homeostatic and hedonic appetite control and mood states in women presenting premenstrual syndrome across menstrual cycle phases

PURPOSE

This study investigated the acute effect of anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (a-tDCS) over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) on appetite, energy intake, food preferences, and mood states in the luteal and follicular phases of the menstrual cycle in women presenting premenstrual syndrome.

METHODS

Sixteen women (26.5 ± 5.2 years; 1.63 ± 0.1 m; 64.2 ± 12.8 kg; body mass index 24.0 ± 5.0 kg/m²; body fat 27.6 ± 7.5%) with the eumenorrheic menstrual cycle were submitted to a-tDCS and sham-tDCS conditions over their follicular and luteal phases. At pre - and post-tDCS, hunger and desire to eat something tasty, (analogic visual scale), the profile of mood states (POMS), and the psychological components of food preferences (Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire-BR) were assessed. Participants recorded their food intake for the rest of the day using a diary log.

RESULTS

There was a trend towards main effect of condition for decreased implicit wanting for low-fat savory food after a-tDCS but not sham-tDCS regardless of menstrual cycle phase (p = 0.062). There was no effect for self-reported hunger, desire to eat, energy and macronutrient intake, and on other components of food preferences (explicit liking and wanting for low- and high-fat savory and sweet foods, implicit wanting for low- and high-fat sweet and high-fat savory food); as well as for mood states.

CONCLUSIONS

Although no significant effects of a-tDCS were found, the present investigation provides relevant perspectives for future studies.

Impact of Premenstrual Syndrome Symptoms on Sport Routines in Nonelite Athlete Participants of Summer Olympic Sports

PURPOSE

Most women during their lifetime experience a combination of premenstrual syndrome (PMS) symptoms (eg, menstrual cramps) before and often to the end of menstruation. However, the impact of these symptoms on sport routines (eg, performance, training absence) during phases around menstruation is still unclear. Therefore, we investigated the impact of PMS symptoms on sport routines among nonelite athletes over 3 phases related to menstruation.

METHODS

An online questionnaire was developed to recruit nonelite female athletes who participate in summer Olympic sports. Participants were allocated into 2 groups: those who experienced mild to moderate PMS symptoms (no-PMS) and those with severe PMS symptoms (p-PMS). Two hundred thirty-four responses from eumenorrheic women (p-PMS = 78%) were considered valid. An unpaired Student t test was conducted to compare demographic characteristics between groups and chi-square test to evaluate the impact of PMS status on sport routines between groups.

RESULTS

A significant (P < .05) proportion of women in the p-PMS group changed their training schedule because of menstrual (55%) and premenstrual (61%) symptoms compared with the no-PMS group. Overall, all participants indicated that training (P = .01) and competitive (P < .01) performance are impacted during menstruation, followed by a greater impact (P < .05) in the p-PMS group before menstruation.

CONCLUSION

The presence of PMS symptoms reduces training and competitive performance, primarily during and before menstruation, respectively. Severity of PMS symptoms was significantly associated with alterations in training schedule but not with competitive schedule.

The Effect of Aerobic Fitness on Psychological, Attentional and Physiological Responses during a Tabata High-Intensity Interval Training Session in Healthy Young Women

The current study examines the effects of a Tabata high-intensity interval training (HIIT) session on affective, cognitive and physiological indicators in women of different fitness levels. A total of 28 adult women (aged 24.2 ± 1.5 years) completed a 20 m shuttle run test and were then assigned to higher fitness and lower fitness groups (HF and LF, n = 14 each) according to their predicted aerobic power. On a separate occasion, participants completed a 30 min Tabata workout (six 4 min rounds separated by 1 min passive rest). Each round included eight exercises (20 s exercise and 10 s rest). Affective, physiological and cognitive responses were assessed prior to, during and after the protocol. Heart rate and blood lactate concentration increased similarly in both groups over time throughout the workout (p < 0.001). Total Mood Disturbance was higher for LF (111.4 ± 15.7) vs. HF (102.9 ± 11.7) (p = 0.48), vigor showed a level by time interaction of p = 0.006 and Activation−Deactivation Adjective Check List factors deteriorated over time (p < 0.001). The Concentration Grid Test was better overall for HF (10.5 ± 3.6) vs. LF (8.6 ± 3.6) (p = 0.05). The Feeling Scale and Rating of Perceived Exertion worsened similarly in both groups over time (p = 0.002 and p < 0.001, respectively). Positive and negative affect and arousal did not differ between groups or change over time (p > 0.05). These results show that, despite the different levels of aerobic fitness, physiological, metabolic, perceptual and affective responses were similar in the two groups of women during a 30 min Tabata session. This may imply that affective responses during this type of HIIT are independent of aerobic fitness.

Psychiatric Symptoms Across the Menstrual Cycle in Adult Women: A Comprehensive Review

LEARNING OBJECTIVE

After participating in this activity, learners should be better able to:• Discuss and outline the general and overlapping effects of the menstrual cycle on women's mental health.

ABSTRACT

A growing body of research demonstrates menstrual cycle-dependent fluctuations in psychiatric symptoms; these fluctuations can therefore be considered as prevalent phenomena. Possible mechanisms underlying these fluctuations posit behavioral, psychological, and neuroendocrine influences. Recent reviews document cyclic exacerbation of symptoms and explore these mechanisms in the context of specific and often single disorders. The question remains, however, as to whether there are general and overlapping effects of the menstrual cycle on women's mental health. To address this gap, we synthesized the literature examining the exacerbation of a variety of psychiatric symptoms across the menstrual cycle in adult women. Results show that the premenstrual and menstrual phases are most consistently implicated in transdiagnostic symptom exacerbation. Specifically, strong evidence indicates increases in psychosis, mania, depression, suicide/suicide attempts, and alcohol use during these phases. Anxiety, stress, and binge eating appear to be elevated more generally throughout the luteal phase. The subjective effects of smoking and cocaine use are reduced during the luteal phase, but fewer data are available for other substances. Less consistent patterns are demonstrated for panic disorder, symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder, and borderline personality disorder, and it is difficult to draw conclusions for symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and trichotillomania because of the limited data. Future research should focus on developing standardized approaches to identifying menstrual cycle phases and adapting pharmacological and behavioral interventions for managing fluctuations in psychiatric symptoms across the menstrual cycle.