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Dong H, Zhang W, Li Y, Feng Y, Wang X, Liu Z, Li D, Wen X, Ma S, Zhang X. Overexpression of salicylic acid methyltransferase reduces salicylic acid-mediated pathogen resistance in poplar. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:973305. [PMID: 36388494 PMCID: PMC9660245 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.973305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Salicylic acid (SA) is generally considered to be a critical signal transduction factor in plant defenses against pathogens. It could be converted to methyl salicylate (MeSA) for remote signals by salicylic acid methyltransferase (SAMT) and converted back to SA by SA-binding protein 2 (SABP2). In order to verify the function of SAMT in poplar plants, we isolated the full-length cDNA sequence of PagSAMT from 84K poplar and cultivated PagSAMT overexpression lines (OE-2 isolate) to test its role in SA-mediated defenses against the virulent fungal pathogen Botryosphaeria dothidea. Our results showed that after inoculation with B. dothidea, OE-2 significantly increased MeSA content and reduced SA content which is associated with increased expression of SAMT in both infected and uninfected leaves, when compared against the wild type (WT). Additionally, SAMT overexpression plant lines (OE-2) exhibited higher expression of pathogenesis-related genes PR-1 and PR-5, but were still susceptible to B. dothidea suggesting that in poplar SA might be responsible for resistance against this pathogen. This study expands the current understanding of joint regulation of SAMT and SABP2 and the balance between SA and MeSA in poplar responses to pathogen invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huixia Dong
- Key Laboratory of Forest Protection of National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Ecology and Nature Conservation Institute, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing, China
- College of Life Science, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Forest Protection of National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Ecology and Nature Conservation Institute, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing, China
- Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yongxia Li
- Key Laboratory of Forest Protection of National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Ecology and Nature Conservation Institute, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing, China
- Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yuqian Feng
- Key Laboratory of Forest Protection of National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Ecology and Nature Conservation Institute, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing, China
- Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xuan Wang
- Key Laboratory of Forest Protection of National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Ecology and Nature Conservation Institute, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing, China
- Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
| | - Zhenkai Liu
- Key Laboratory of Forest Protection of National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Ecology and Nature Conservation Institute, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing, China
- Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
| | - Dongzhen Li
- Key Laboratory of Forest Protection of National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Ecology and Nature Conservation Institute, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing, China
- Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xiaojian Wen
- Key Laboratory of Forest Protection of National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Ecology and Nature Conservation Institute, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing, China
- Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
| | - Shuai Ma
- Resources Management, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing, China
| | - Xingyao Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Forest Protection of National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Ecology and Nature Conservation Institute, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing, China
- Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
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2
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Gordon H, Fellenberg C, Lackus ND, Archinuk F, Sproule A, Nakamura Y, K�llner TG, Gershenzon J, Overy DP, Constabel CP. CRISPR/Cas9 disruption of UGT71L1 in poplar connects salicinoid and salicylic acid metabolism and alters growth and morphology. THE PLANT CELL 2022; 34:2925-2947. [PMID: 35532172 PMCID: PMC9338807 DOI: 10.1093/plcell/koac135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Salicinoids are salicyl alcohol-containing phenolic glycosides with strong antiherbivore effects found only in poplars and willows. Their biosynthesis is poorly understood, but recently a UDP-dependent glycosyltransferase, UGT71L1, was shown to be required for salicinoid biosynthesis in poplar tissue cultures. UGT71L1 specifically glycosylates salicyl benzoate, a proposed salicinoid intermediate. Here, we analyzed transgenic CRISPR/Cas9-generated UGT71L1 knockout plants. Metabolomic analyses revealed substantial reductions in the major salicinoids, confirming the central role of the enzyme in salicinoid biosynthesis. Correspondingly, UGT71L1 knockouts were preferred to wild-type by white-marked tussock moth (Orgyia leucostigma) larvae in bioassays. Greenhouse-grown knockout plants showed substantial growth alterations, with decreased internode length and smaller serrated leaves. Reinserting a functional UGT71L1 gene in a transgenic rescue experiment demonstrated that these effects were due only to the loss of UGT71L1. The knockouts contained elevated salicylate (SA) and jasmonate (JA) concentrations, and also had enhanced expression of SA- and JA-related genes. SA is predicted to be released by UGT71L1 disruption, if salicyl salicylate is a pathway intermediate and UGT71L1 substrate. This idea was supported by showing that salicyl salicylate can be glucosylated by recombinant UGT71L1, providing a potential link of salicinoid metabolism to SA and growth impacts. Connecting this pathway with growth could imply that salicinoids are under additional evolutionary constraints beyond selective pressure by herbivores.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harley Gordon
- Department of Biology, Centre for Forest Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8P 5C2, Canada
| | - Christin Fellenberg
- Department of Biology, Centre for Forest Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8P 5C2, Canada
| | - Nathalie D Lackus
- Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena 07745, Germany
| | - Finn Archinuk
- Department of Biology, Centre for Forest Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8P 5C2, Canada
| | - Amanda Sproule
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0C6, Canada
| | - Yoko Nakamura
- Department of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena 07745, Germany
- Department of Natural Product Biosynthesis, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena 07745, Germany
| | - Tobias G K�llner
- Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena 07745, Germany
| | - Jonathan Gershenzon
- Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena 07745, Germany
| | - David P Overy
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0C6, Canada
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3
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Comparing in planta accumulation with microbial routes to set targets for a cost-competitive bioeconomy. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2122309119. [PMID: 35858445 PMCID: PMC9335188 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2122309119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The establishment of a carbon-negative bioeconomy that eliminates the need for crude oil will require a range of bioproducts. Accumulating value-added bioproducts directly in bioenergy crops can be an important strategy for enabling economically competitive biorefineries that produce a range of renewable fuels and replacements for petrochemicals. However, microbial chassis may have advantages over plants for some products. To date, there has been no systematic analysis aimed at comparing microbial production routes with in planta accumulation to establish breakeven targets for yields and accumulation rates. In this study, we provide generalizable insights into these breakeven points by exploring four bioproducts (4-hydroxybenzoic acid [4-HBA], 2-pyrone-4,6-dicarboxylic acid [PDC], muconic acid, and catechol) currently produced both in plants and by microbial hosts. Plants and microbes share common metabolic pathways for producing a range of bioproducts that are potentially foundational to the future bioeconomy. However, in planta accumulation and microbial production of bioproducts have never been systematically compared on an economic basis to identify optimal routes of production. A detailed technoeconomic analysis of four exemplar compounds (4-hydroxybenzoic acid [4-HBA], catechol, muconic acid, and 2-pyrone-4,6-dicarboxylic acid [PDC]) is conducted with the highest reported yields and accumulation rates to identify economically advantaged platforms and breakeven targets for plants and microbes. The results indicate that in planta mass accumulation ranging from 0.1 to 0.3 dry weight % (dwt%) can achieve costs comparable to microbial routes operating at 40 to 55% of maximum theoretical yields. These yields and accumulation rates are sufficient to be cost competitive if the products are sold at market prices consistent with specialty chemicals ($20 to $50/kg). Prices consistent with commodity chemicals will require an order-of-magnitude-greater accumulation rate for plants and/or yields nearing theoretical maxima for microbial production platforms. This comparative analysis revealed that the demonstrated accumulation rates of 4-HBA (3.2 dwt%) and PDC (3.0 dwt%) in engineered plants vastly outperform microbial routes, even if microbial platforms were to reach theoretical maximum yields. Their recovery and sale as part of a lignocellulosic biorefinery could enable biofuel prices to be competitive with petroleum. Muconic acid and catechol, in contrast, are currently more attractive when produced microbially using a sugar feedstock. Ultimately, both platforms can play an important role in replacing fossil-derived products.
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Bernacki MJ, Rusaczonek A, Czarnocka W, Karpiński S. Salicylic Acid Accumulation Controlled by LSD1 Is Essential in Triggering Cell Death in Response to Abiotic Stress. Cells 2021; 10:962. [PMID: 33924244 PMCID: PMC8074770 DOI: 10.3390/cells10040962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Revised: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Salicylic acid (SA) is well known hormonal molecule involved in cell death regulation. In response to a broad range of environmental factors (e.g., high light, UV, pathogens attack), plants accumulate SA, which participates in cell death induction and spread in some foliar cells. LESION SIMULATING DISEASE 1 (LSD1) is one of the best-known cell death regulators in Arabidopsis thaliana. The lsd1 mutant, lacking functional LSD1 protein, accumulates SA and is conditionally susceptible to many biotic and abiotic stresses. In order to get more insight into the role of LSD1-dependent regulation of SA accumulation during cell death, we crossed the lsd1 with the sid2 mutant, caring mutation in ISOCHORISMATE SYNTHASE 1(ICS1) gene and having deregulated SA synthesis, and with plants expressing the bacterial nahG gene and thus decomposing SA to catechol. In response to UV A+B irradiation, the lsd1 mutant exhibited clear cell death phenotype, which was reversed in lsd1/sid2 and lsd1/NahG plants. The expression of PR-genes and the H2O2 content in UV-treated lsd1 were significantly higher when compared with the wild type. In contrast, lsd1/sid2 and lsd1/NahG plants demonstrated comparability with the wild-type level of PR-genes expression and H2O2. Our results demonstrate that SA accumulation is crucial for triggering cell death in lsd1, while the reduction of excessive SA accumulation may lead to a greater tolerance toward abiotic stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maciej Jerzy Bernacki
- Institute of Technology and Life Sciences, Falenty, Al. Hrabska 3, 05-090 Raszyn, Poland;
| | - Anna Rusaczonek
- Department of Botany, Institute of Biology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Nowoursynowska Street 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland; (A.R.); (W.C.)
| | - Weronika Czarnocka
- Department of Botany, Institute of Biology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Nowoursynowska Street 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland; (A.R.); (W.C.)
| | - Stanisław Karpiński
- Department of Plant Genetics, Breeding and Biotechnology, Institute of Biology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Nowoursynowska Street 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
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Harman-Ware AE, Macaya-Sanz D, Abeyratne CR, Doeppke C, Haiby K, Tuskan GA, Stanton B, DiFazio SP, Davis MF. Accurate determination of genotypic variance of cell wall characteristics of a Populus trichocarpa pedigree using high-throughput pyrolysis-molecular beam mass spectrometry. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS 2021; 14:59. [PMID: 33676543 PMCID: PMC7937246 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-021-01908-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2020] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pyrolysis-molecular beam mass spectrometry (py-MBMS) analysis of a pedigree of Populus trichocarpa was performed to study the phenotypic plasticity and heritability of lignin content and lignin monomer composition. Instrumental and microspatial environmental variability were observed in the spectral features and corrected to reveal underlying genetic variance of biomass composition. RESULTS Lignin-derived ions (including m/z 124, 154, 168, 194, 210 and others) were highly impacted by microspatial environmental variation which demonstrates phenotypic plasticity of lignin composition in Populus trichocarpa biomass. Broad-sense heritability of lignin composition after correcting for microspatial and instrumental variation was determined to be H2 = 0.56 based on py-MBMS ions known to derive from lignin. Heritability of lignin monomeric syringyl/guaiacyl ratio (S/G) was H2 = 0.81. Broad-sense heritability was also high (up to H2 = 0.79) for ions derived from other components of the biomass including phenolics (e.g., salicylates) and C5 sugars (e.g., xylose). Lignin and phenolic ion abundances were primarily driven by maternal effects, and paternal effects were either similar or stronger for the most heritable carbohydrate-derived ions. CONCLUSIONS We have shown that many biopolymer-derived ions from py-MBMS show substantial phenotypic plasticity in response to microenvironmental variation in plantations. Nevertheless, broad-sense heritability for biomass composition can be quite high after correcting for spatial environmental variation. This work outlines the importance in accounting for instrumental and microspatial environmental variation in biomass composition data for applications in heritability measurements and genomic selection for breeding poplar for renewable fuels and materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne E Harman-Ware
- Renewable Resources and Enabling Sciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, 80401, USA.
| | - David Macaya-Sanz
- Department of Biology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | | | - Crissa Doeppke
- Renewable Resources and Enabling Sciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, 80401, USA
| | | | - Gerald A Tuskan
- Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37830, USA
| | | | - Stephen P DiFazio
- Department of Biology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Mark F Davis
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, 80401, USA
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6
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Kulasekaran S, Cerezo-Medina S, Harflett C, Lomax C, de Jong F, Rendour A, Ruvo G, Hanley SJ, Beale MH, Ward JL. A willow UDP-glycosyltransferase involved in salicinoid biosynthesis. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2021; 72:1634-1648. [PMID: 33249501 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/eraa562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The salicinoids are phenolic glycosides that are characteristic secondary metabolites of the Salicaceae, particularly willows and poplars. Despite the well-known pharmacology of salicin, that led to the development of aspirin >100 years ago, the biosynthetic pathways leading to salicinoids have yet to be defined. Here, we describe the identification, cloning, and biochemical characterization of SpUGT71L2 and SpUGT71L3-isozymic glycosyltransferases from Salix purpurea-that function in the glucosylation of ortho-substituted phenols. The best substrate in vitro was salicyl-7-benzoate. Its product, salicyl-7-benzoate glucoside, was shown to be endogenous in poplar and willow. Together they are inferred to be early intermediates in the biosynthesis of salicortin and related metabolites in planta. The role of this UDP-glycosyltransferase was confirmed via the metabolomic analysis of transgenic plants produced by RNAi knockdown of the poplar orthologue (UGT71L1) in the hybrid clone Populus tremula×P. alba, INRA 717-1B4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satish Kulasekaran
- Computational and Analytical Sciences Department, Rothamsted Research, West Common, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Sergio Cerezo-Medina
- Computational and Analytical Sciences Department, Rothamsted Research, West Common, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Claudia Harflett
- Computational and Analytical Sciences Department, Rothamsted Research, West Common, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Charlotte Lomax
- Computational and Analytical Sciences Department, Rothamsted Research, West Common, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Femke de Jong
- Computational and Analytical Sciences Department, Rothamsted Research, West Common, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Amelie Rendour
- Computational and Analytical Sciences Department, Rothamsted Research, West Common, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Gianluca Ruvo
- Computational and Analytical Sciences Department, Rothamsted Research, West Common, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Steven J Hanley
- Computational and Analytical Sciences Department, Rothamsted Research, West Common, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Michael H Beale
- Computational and Analytical Sciences Department, Rothamsted Research, West Common, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Jane L Ward
- Computational and Analytical Sciences Department, Rothamsted Research, West Common, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, UK
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7
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Van Gelder K, Forrester T, Akhtar TA. Evidence from stable-isotope labeling that catechol is an intermediate in salicylic acid catabolism in the flowers of Silene latifolia (white campion). PLANTA 2020; 252:3. [PMID: 32514846 PMCID: PMC7280317 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-020-03410-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
A stable isotope-assisted mass spectrometry-based platform was utilized to demonstrate that the plant hormone, salicylic acid, is catabolized to catechol, a widespread secondary plant compound. The phytohormone salicylic acid (SA) plays a central role in the overall plant defense program, as well as various other aspects of plant growth and development. Although the biosynthetic steps toward SA are well documented, how SA is catabolized in plants remains poorly understood. Accordingly, in this study a series of stable isotope feeding experiments were performed with Silene latifolia (white campion) to explore possible routes of SA breakdown. S. latifolia flowers that were fed a solution of [2H6]-salicylic acid emitted the volatile and potent pollinator attractant, 1,2-dimethoxybenzene (veratrole), which contained the benzene ring-bound deuterium atoms. Extracts from these S. latifolia flowers revealed labeled catechol as a possible intermediate. After feeding flowers with [2H6]-catechol, the stable isotope was recovered in veratrole as well as its precursor, guaiacol. Addition of a trapping pool of guaiacol in combination with [2H6]-salicylic acid resulted in the accumulation of the label into catechol. Finally, we provide evidence for catechol O-methyltransferase enzyme activity in a population of S. latifolia that synthesizes veratrole from guaiacol. This activity was absent in non-veratrole emitting flowers. Taken together, these results imply the conversion of salicylic acid to veratrole in the following reaction sequence: salicylic acid > catechol > guaiacol > veratrole. This catabolic pathway for SA may also be embedded in other lineages of the plant kingdom, particularly those species which are known to accumulate catechol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristen Van Gelder
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Taylor Forrester
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Tariq A Akhtar
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada.
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8
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Ullah C, Tsai C, Unsicker SB, Xue L, Reichelt M, Gershenzon J, Hammerbacher A. Salicylic acid activates poplar defense against the biotrophic rust fungus Melampsora larici-populina via increased biosynthesis of catechin and proanthocyanidins. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2019; 221:960-975. [PMID: 30168132 PMCID: PMC6585937 DOI: 10.1111/nph.15396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2018] [Accepted: 07/10/2018] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Poplar trees synthesize flavan-3-ols (catechin and proanthocyanidins) as a defense against foliar rust fungi, but the regulation of this defense response is poorly understood. Here, we investigated the role of hormones in regulating flavan-3-ol accumulation in poplar during rust infection. We profiled levels of defense hormones, signaling genes, and flavan-3-ol metabolites in black poplar leaves at different stages of rust infection. Hormone levels were manipulated by external sprays, genetic engineering, and drought to reveal their role in rust fungal defenses. Levels of salicylic acid (SA), jasmonic acid, and abscisic acid increased in rust-infected leaves and activated downstream signaling, with SA levels correlating closely with those of flavan-3-ols. Pretreatment with the SA analog benzothiadiazole increased flavan-3-ol accumulation by activating the MYB-bHLH-WD40 complex and reduced rust proliferation. Furthermore, transgenic poplar lines overproducing SA exhibited higher amounts of flavan-3-ols constitutively via the same transcriptional activation mechanism. These findings suggest a strong association among SA, flavan-3-ol biosynthesis, and rust resistance in poplars. Abscisic acid also promoted poplar defense against rust infection, but likely through stomatal immunity independent of flavan-3-ols. Jasmonic acid did not confer any apparent defense responses to the fungal pathogen. We conclude that SA activates flavan-3-ol biosynthesis in poplar against rust infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chhana Ullah
- Department of BiochemistryMax Planck Institute for Chemical EcologyHans‐Knöll‐Straße 807745JenaGermany
| | - Chung‐Jui Tsai
- School of Forestry and Natural ResourcesDepartment of GeneticsDepartment of Plant BiologyUniversity of GeorgiaAthensGA30602USA
| | - Sybille B. Unsicker
- Department of BiochemistryMax Planck Institute for Chemical EcologyHans‐Knöll‐Straße 807745JenaGermany
| | - Liangjiao Xue
- Key Laboratory of Forest Genetics and BiotechnologyCo‐Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern ChinaCollege of ForestryNanjing Forestry UniversityNanjingJiangsu210037China
| | - Michael Reichelt
- Department of BiochemistryMax Planck Institute for Chemical EcologyHans‐Knöll‐Straße 807745JenaGermany
| | - Jonathan Gershenzon
- Department of BiochemistryMax Planck Institute for Chemical EcologyHans‐Knöll‐Straße 807745JenaGermany
| | - Almuth Hammerbacher
- Department of Zoology and Entomology, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology InstituteUniversity of PretoriaPrivate Bag X20Pretoria0028South Africa
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9
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Ullah C, Unsicker SB, Reichelt M, Gershenzon J, Hammerbacher A. Accumulation of Catechin and Proanthocyanidins in Black Poplar Stems After Infection by Plectosphaerella populi: Hormonal Regulation, Biosynthesis and Antifungal Activity. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2019; 10:1441. [PMID: 31803202 PMCID: PMC6873352 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2019.01441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2019] [Accepted: 10/16/2019] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Flavan-3-ols including the monomeric catechin and the polymeric proanthocyanidins (PAs) are abundant phenolic metabolites in poplar (Populus spp.) previously described to protect leaves against pathogen infection. However, it is not known whether stems are also defended in this way. Here we investigated flavan-3-ol accumulation, activity, and the regulation of formation in black poplar (P. nigra) stems after infection by a newly described fungal stem pathogen, Plectosphaerella populi, which forms canker-like lesions in stems. We showed that flavan-3-ol contents increased in P. populi-infected black poplar stems over the course of infection compared to non-infected controls. Transcripts of leucoanthocyanidin reductase (LAR) and anthocyanidin reductase (ANR) genes involved in the last steps of flavan-3-ol biosynthesis were also upregulated upon fungal infection indicating de novo biosynthesis. Amending culture medium with catechin and PAs reduced the mycelial growth of P. populi, suggesting that these metabolites act as anti-pathogen defenses in poplar in vivo. Among the hormones, salicylic acid (SA) was higher in P. populi-infected tissues compared to the non-infected controls over the course of infection studied, while jasmonic acid (JA) and JA-isoleucine (JA-Ile) levels were higher than controls only at the early stages of infection. Interestingly, cytokinins (CKs) were also upregulated in P. populi-infected stems. Poplar saplings treated with CK showed decreased levels of flavan-3-ols and SA in stems suggesting a negative association between CK and flavan-3-ol accumulation. Taken together, the sustained upregulation of SA in correlation with catechin and PA accumulation suggests that this is the dominant hormone inducing the formation of antifungal flavan-3-ols during P. populi infection of poplar stems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chhana Ullah
- Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
- *Correspondence: Chhana Ullah,
| | - Sybille B. Unsicker
- Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Michael Reichelt
- Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Jonathan Gershenzon
- Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Almuth Hammerbacher
- Department of Zoology and Entomology, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
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10
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Eudes A, Berthomieu R, Hao Z, Zhao N, Benites VT, Baidoo EEK, Loqué D. Production of muconic acid in plants. Metab Eng 2018; 46:13-19. [PMID: 29474840 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymben.2018.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2017] [Revised: 01/06/2018] [Accepted: 02/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Muconic acid (MA) is a dicarboxylic acid used for the production of industrially relevant chemicals such as adipic acid, terephthalic acid, and caprolactam. Because the synthesis of these polymer precursors generates toxic intermediates by utilizing petroleum-derived chemicals and corrosive catalysts, the development of alternative strategies for the bio-based production of MA has garnered significant interest. Plants produce organic carbon skeletons by harvesting carbon dioxide and energy from the sun, and therefore represent advantageous hosts for engineered metabolic pathways towards the manufacturing of chemicals. In this work, we engineered Arabidopsis to demonstrate that plants can serve as green factories for the bio-manufacturing of MA. In particular, dual expression of plastid-targeted bacterial salicylate hydroxylase (NahG) and catechol 1,2-dioxygenase (CatA) resulted in the conversion of the endogenous salicylic acid (SA) pool into MA via catechol. Sequential increase of SA derived from the shikimate pathway was achieved by expressing plastid-targeted versions of bacterial salicylate synthase (Irp9) and feedback-resistant 3-deoxy-D-arabino-heptulosonate synthase (AroG). Introducing this SA over-producing strategy into engineered plants that co-express NahG and CatA resulted in a 50-fold increase in MA titers. Considering that MA was easily recovered from senesced plant biomass after harvest, we envision the phytoproduction of MA as a beneficial option to add value to bioenergy crops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aymerick Eudes
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, EmeryStation East, 5885 Hollis St, 4th Floor, Emeryville, CA 94608, USA; Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.
| | - Roland Berthomieu
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, EmeryStation East, 5885 Hollis St, 4th Floor, Emeryville, CA 94608, USA; Ecole Polytechnique, Université Paris-Saclay, Palaiseau 91120, France
| | - Zhangying Hao
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, EmeryStation East, 5885 Hollis St, 4th Floor, Emeryville, CA 94608, USA; Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Nanxia Zhao
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, EmeryStation East, 5885 Hollis St, 4th Floor, Emeryville, CA 94608, USA; Department of Bioengineering, Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Veronica Teixeira Benites
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, EmeryStation East, 5885 Hollis St, 4th Floor, Emeryville, CA 94608, USA; Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Edward E K Baidoo
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, EmeryStation East, 5885 Hollis St, 4th Floor, Emeryville, CA 94608, USA; Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Dominique Loqué
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, EmeryStation East, 5885 Hollis St, 4th Floor, Emeryville, CA 94608, USA; Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Université Lyon 1, INSA de Lyon, CNRS, UMR5240, Microbiologie, Adaptation et Pathogénie, 10 rue Raphaël Dubois, F-69622, Villeurbanne, France.
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11
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Shen C, Yang Y, Liu K, Zhang L, Guo H, Sun T, Wang H. Involvement of endogenous salicylic acid in iron-deficiency responses in Arabidopsis. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2016; 67:4179-93. [PMID: 27208542 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erw196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Several phytohormones have been demonstrated to be involved in iron (Fe) homeostasis. We took advantage of a salicylic acid (SA) biosynthesis defective mutant phytoalexin deficient 4 (pad4: T-DNA Salk_089936) to explore the possible effects of endogenous SA on the morphological and physiological responses to Fe deprivation. The morphological and physiological analysis was carried out between Col-0 and the pad4 mutant. Under an Fe-deficiency treatment, Col-0 showed more severe leaf chlorosis and root growth inhibition compared with the pad4 mutant. The soluble Fe concentrations were significantly higher in pad4 than in Col-0 under the Fe-deficiency treatment. Fe deficiency significantly induced SA accumulation in Col-0 and the loss-of-function of PAD4 blocked this process. The requirement of endogenous SA accumulation for Fe-deficiency responses was confirmed using a series of SA biosynthetic mutants and transgenic lines. Furthermore, a comparative RNA sequencing analysis of the whole seedling transcriptomes between Col-0 and the pad4 mutant was also performed. Based on the transcriptome data, the expression levels of many auxin- and ethylene-response genes were altered in pad4 compared with Col-0. Fe deficiency increases SA contents which elevates auxin and ethylene signalling, thereby activating Fe translocation via the bHLH38/39-mediated transcriptional regulation of downstream Fe genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenjia Shen
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 310036, China
| | - Yanjun Yang
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 310036, China
| | - Kaidong Liu
- Life Science and Technology School, Lingnan Normal University, Zhanjiang, Guangdong 524048, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- Department of Plant Pathology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27607, USA
| | - Hong Guo
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 310036, China
| | - Tao Sun
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 310036, China
| | - Huizhong Wang
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 310036, China
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12
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Weston DJ, Rogers A, Tschaplinski TJ, Gunter LE, Jawdy SA, Engle NL, Heady LE, Tuskan GA, Wullschleger SD. Scaling nitrogen and carbon interactions: what are the consequences of biological buffering? Ecol Evol 2015; 5:2839-50. [PMID: 26306170 PMCID: PMC4541989 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.1565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2015] [Accepted: 05/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the consequences of elevated CO2 (eCO2; 800 ppm) on terrestrial ecosystems is a central theme in global change biology, but relatively little is known about how altered plant C and N metabolism influences higher levels of biological organization. Here, we investigate the consequences of C and N interactions by genetically modifying the N-assimilation pathway in Arabidopsis and initiating growth chamber and mesocosm competition studies at current CO2 (cCO2; 400 ppm) and eCO2 over multiple generations. Using a suite of ecological, physiological, and molecular genomic tools, we show that a single-gene mutant of a key enzyme (nia2) elicited a highly orchestrated buffering response starting with a fivefold increase in the expression of a gene paralog (nia1) and a 63% increase in the expression of gene network module enriched for N-assimilation genes. The genetic perturbation reduced amino acids, protein, and TCA-cycle intermediate concentrations in the nia2 mutant compared to the wild-type, while eCO2 mainly increased carbohydrate concentrations. The mutant had reduced net photosynthetic rates due to a 27% decrease in carboxylation capacity and an 18% decrease in electron transport rates. The expression of these buffering mechanisms resulted in a penalty that negatively correlated with fitness and population dynamics yet showed only minor alterations in our estimates of population function, including total per unit area biomass, ground cover, and leaf area index. This study provides insight into the consequences of buffering mechanisms that occur post-genetic perturbations in the N pathway and the associated outcomes these buffering systems have on plant populations relative to eCO2.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Weston
- Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 37831-6407
| | - Alistair Rogers
- Biological, Environmental & Climate Sciences Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory Upton, New York, 11973-5000
| | | | - Lee E Gunter
- Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 37831-6407
| | - Sara A Jawdy
- Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 37831-6407
| | - Nancy L Engle
- Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 37831-6407
| | - Lindsey E Heady
- Biological, Environmental & Climate Sciences Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory Upton, New York, 11973-5000
| | - Gerald A Tuskan
- Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 37831-6407
| | - Stan D Wullschleger
- Environmental Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 37831-6301
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13
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Kumar D. Salicylic acid signaling in disease resistance. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2014; 228:127-34. [PMID: 25438793 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2014.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2014] [Revised: 04/09/2014] [Accepted: 04/17/2014] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Salicylic acid (SA) is a key plant hormone that mediates host responses against microbial pathogens. Identification and characterization of SA-interacting/binding proteins is a topic which has always excited scientists studying microbial defense response in plants. It is likely that discovery of a true receptor for SA may greatly advance understanding of this important signaling pathway. SABP2 with its high affinity for SA was previously considered to be a SA receptor. Despite a great deal work we may still not have true a receptor for SA. It is also entirely possible that there may be more than one receptor for SA. This scenario is more likely given the diverse role of SA in various physiological processes in plants including, modulation of opening and closing of stomatal aperture, flowering, seedling germination, thermotolerance, photosynthesis, and drought tolerance. Recent identification of NPR3, NPR4 and NPR1 as potential SA receptors and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (KGDHE2), several glutathione S transferases (GSTF) such as SA binding proteins have generated more interest in this field. Some of these SA binding proteins may have direct/indirect role in plant processes other than pathogen defense signaling. Development and use of new techniques with higher specificity to identify SA-interacting proteins have shown great promise and have resulted in the identification of several new SA interactors. This review focuses on SA interaction/binding proteins identified so far and their likely role in mediating plant defenses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dhirendra Kumar
- Department of Biological Sciences, East Tennessee State University, Box 70703, Johnson City, TN 37614, USA.
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14
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Keefover-Ring K, Ahnlund M, Abreu IN, Jansson S, Moritz T, Albrectsen BR. No evidence of geographical structure of salicinoid chemotypes within Populus tremula. PLoS One 2014; 9:e107189. [PMID: 25299342 PMCID: PMC4191948 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0107189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2014] [Accepted: 08/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Salicinoids are well-known defense compounds in salicaceous trees and careful screening at the population level is warranted to fully understand their diversity and function. European aspen, Populus tremula, is a foundation species in Eurasia and highly polymorphic in Sweden. We exhaustively surveyed 102 replicated genotypes from the Swedish Aspen collection (SwAsp) for foliar salicinoids using UHPLC-ESI-TOF/MS and identified nine novel compounds, bringing the total to 19 for this species. Salicinoid structure followed a modular architecture of a salicin skeleton with added side groups, alone or in combination. Two main moieties, 2'-cinnamoyl and 2'-acetyl, grouped the SwAsp population into four distinct chemotypes, and the relative allocation of salicinoids was remarkably constant between different environments, implying a highly channeled biosynthesis of these compounds. Slightly more than half of the SwAsp genotypes belonged to the cinnamoyl chemotype. A fraction synthesized the acetyl moiety alone (∼7%) or in combination with cinnamoyl (∼2%), and close to forty percent lacked either of the two characteristic moieties, and thus resemble P. tremuloides in their salicinoid profile. The two most abundant chemotypes were evenly distributed throughout Sweden, unlike geographical patterns reported for SwAsp phenology traits, plant defense genes, and herbivore community associations. Here we present the salicinoid characterization of the SwAsp collection as a resource for future studies of aspen chemical ecology, salicinoid biosynthesis, and genetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ken Keefover-Ring
- Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
- Department of Entomology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Maria Ahnlund
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Ilka Nacif Abreu
- Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Stefan Jansson
- Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Thomas Moritz
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Benedicte Riber Albrectsen
- Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
- * E-mail:
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15
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Mageroy MH, Tieman DM, Floystad A, Taylor MG, Klee HJ. A Solanum lycopersicum catechol-O-methyltransferase involved in synthesis of the flavor molecule guaiacol. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2012; 69:1043-51. [PMID: 22103597 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2011.04854.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
O-methyltransferases (OMT) are important enzymes that are responsible for the synthesis of many small molecules, which include lignin monomers, flavonoids, alkaloids, and aroma compounds. One such compound is guaiacol, a small volatile molecule with a smoky aroma that contributes to tomato flavor. Little information is known about the pathway and regulation of synthesis of guaiacol. One possible route for synthesis is via catechol methylation. We identified a tomato O-methyltransferase (CTOMT1) with homology to a Nicotiana tabacum catechol OMT. CTOMT1 was cloned from Solanum lycopersicum cv. M82 and expressed in Escherichia coli. Recombinant CTOMT1 enzyme preferentially methylated catechol, producing guaiacol. To validate the in vivo function of CTOMT1, gene expression was either decreased or increased in transgenic S. lycopersicum plants. Knockdown of CTOMT1 resulted in significantly reduced fruit guaiacol emissions. CTOMT1 overexpression resulted in slightly increased fruit guaiacol emission, which suggested that catechol availability might limit guaiacol production. To test this hypothesis, wild type (WT) and CTOMT1 that overexpress tomato pericarp discs were supplied with exogenously applied catechol. Guaiacol production increased in both WT and transgenic fruit discs, although to a much greater extent in CTOMT1 overexpressing discs. Finally, we identified S. pennellii introgression lines with increased guaiacol content and higher expression of CTOMT1. These lines also showed a trend toward lower catechol levels. Taken together, we concluded that CTOMT1 is a catechol-O-methyltransferase that produces guaiacol in tomato fruit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa H Mageroy
- Plant Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-0690, USA
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16
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Gilardoni PA, Hettenhausen C, Baldwin IT, Bonaventure G. Nicotiana attenuata LECTIN RECEPTOR KINASE1 suppresses the insect-mediated inhibition of induced defense responses during Manduca sexta herbivory. THE PLANT CELL 2011; 23:3512-32. [PMID: 21926334 PMCID: PMC3203443 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.111.088229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2011] [Revised: 08/29/2011] [Accepted: 09/05/2011] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Nicotiana attenuata has the capacity to respond specifically to herbivory by its natural herbivore, Manduca sexta, through the perception of elicitors in larval oral secretions. We demonstrate that Lectin receptor kinase 1 (LecRK1) functions during M. sexta herbivory to suppress the insect-mediated inhibition of jasmonic acid (JA)-induced defense responses. Gene function analysis performed by reducing LecRK1 expression in N. attenuata by both virus-induced gene silencing and inverted repeated RNA interference (ir-lecRK1 plants) revealed that LecRK1 was essential to mount a full defense response against M. sexta folivory; larvae growing on ir-lecRK1 plants were 40 to 100% larger than those growing on wild-type plants. The insect-induced accumulation of nicotine, diterpene-glucosides, and trypsin protease inhibitors, as well as the expression of Thr deaminase, was severalfold reduced in ir-lecRK1 plants compared with the wild type. The accumulation of JA and JA-Ile was unaffected during herbivory in ir-lecRK1 plants; however, salicylic acid (SA) accumulation was increased by twofold. The expression of nahG in ir-lecRK1 plants prevented the increased accumulation of SA and restored the defense response against M. sexta herbivory. The results suggest that LecRK1 inhibits the accumulation of SA during herbivory, although other mechanisms may also be affected.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Gustavo Bonaventure
- Department of Molecular Ecology, Max Planck Institute of Chemical Ecology, D-07745 Jena, Germany
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17
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Abreu IN, Ahnlund M, Moritz T, Albrectsen BR. UHPLC-ESI/TOFMS determination of salicylate-like phenolic gycosides in Populus tremula leaves. J Chem Ecol 2011; 37:857-70. [PMID: 21748301 PMCID: PMC3148433 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-011-9991-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2011] [Revised: 04/28/2011] [Accepted: 06/13/2011] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Associations of salicylate-like phenolic glycosides (PGs) with biological activity have been reported in Salix and Populus trees, but only for a few compounds, and in relation to a limited number of herbivores. By considering the full diversity of PGs, we may improve our ability to recognize genotypes or chemotype groups and enhance our understanding of their ecological function. Here, we present a fast and efficient general method for salicylate determination in leaves of Eurasian aspen that uses ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization/time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-ESI/TOFMS). The time required for the liquid chromatography separations was 13.5 min per sample, compared to around 60 min per sample for most HPLC protocols. In leaf samples from identical P. tremula genotypes with diverse propagation and treatment histories, we identified nine PGs. We found the compound-specific mass chromatograms to be more informative than the UV-visible chromatograms for compound identification and when quantitating samples with large variability in PG content. Signature compounds previously reported for P. tremoloides (tremulacin, tremuloidin, salicin, and salicortin) always were present, and five PGs (2'-O-cinnamoyl-salicortin, 2'-O-acetyl-salicortin, 2'-O-acetyl-salicin, acetyl-tremulacin, and salicyloyl-salicin) were detected for the first time in P. tremula. By using information about the formic acid adduct that appeared for PGs in the LTQ-Orbitrap MS environment, novel compounds like acetyl-tremulacin could be tentatively identified without the use of standards. The novel PGs were consistently either present in genotypes regardless of propagation and damage treatment or were not detectable. In some genotypes, concentrations of 2'-O-acetyl-salicortin and 2'-O-cinnamoyl-salicortin were similar to levels of biologically active PGs in other Salicaceous trees. Our study suggests that we may expect a wide variation in PG content in aspen populations which is of interest both for studies of interactions with herbivores and for mapping population structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilka Nacif Abreu
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå University, SE-90187 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Maria Ahnlund
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-90183 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Thomas Moritz
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-90183 Umeå, Sweden
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Abstract
The perennial plant model species Populus trichocarpa has received considerable attention in the last 5 yr because of its potential use as a bioenergy crop. The completion of its genome sequence revealed extensive homologies with the herbaceous annual species Arabidopsis thaliana. This review highlights the similarities and differences at the qualitative defence response components level, notably in putative NBS-LRR protein content and downstream defence regulators. With almost a twofold NBS-LRR gene complement compared with A. thaliana, P. trichocarpa also encodes some putative R-proteins with unusual architectures and possible DNA-binding capacity. P. trichocarpa also possesses all the known main components characteristic of TIR-NB-LRR and CC-NB-LRR signalling. However, very little has been done with regard to the components involved in the poplar qualitative response to pathogens. In addition, the relationship between plant-biotroph perception/signalling and the role of salicylic acid, an important defence compound, remains uncertain. This review aims to identify the genomic components present in poplar that could potentially participate in the qualitative response and highlights where efforts should be devoted to obtain a better understanding of the poplar qualitative defence response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo Germain
- Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Laurentian Forestry Centre, 1055 du PEPS, PO Box 10380, Stn Sainte-Foy, Québec, QC, G1V 4C7, Canada
| | - Armand Séguin
- Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Laurentian Forestry Centre, 1055 du PEPS, PO Box 10380, Stn Sainte-Foy, Québec, QC, G1V 4C7, Canada
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19
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Sánchez G, Gerhardt N, Siciliano F, Vojnov A, Malcuit I, Marano MR. Salicylic acid is involved in the Nb-mediated defense responses to Potato virus X in Solanum tuberosum. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2010; 23:394-405. [PMID: 20192827 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-23-4-0394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
To evaluate the role of salicylic acid (SA) in Nb-mediated hypersensitive resistance to Potato virus X (PVX) avirulent strain ROTH1 in Solanum tuberosum, we have constructed SA-deficient transgenic potato plant lines by overexpressing the bacterial enzyme salicylate hydroxylase (NahG), which degrades SA. Evaluation of these transgenic lines revealed hydrogen peroxide accumulation and spontaneous lesion formation in an age- and light-dependent manner. In concordance, NahG potato plants were more sensitive to treatment with methyl viologen, a reactive oxygen species-generating compound. In addition, when challenged with PVX ROTH1, NahG transgenic lines showed a decreased disease-resistance response to infection and were unable to induce systemic acquired resistance. However, the avirulent viral effector, the PVX 25-kDa protein, does induce expression of the pathogenesis-related gene PR-1a in NahG potato plants. Taken together, our data indicate that SA is involved in local and systemic defense responses mediated by the Nb gene in Solanum tuberosum. This is the first report to show that basal levels of SA correlate with hypersensitive resistance to PVX.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerardo Sánchez
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario (IBR-CONICET) Area Virología, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Suipacha 531, Rosario, Argentina.
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20
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Biosynthesis of phenolic glycosides from phenylpropanoid and benzenoid precursors in populus. J Chem Ecol 2010; 36:286-97. [PMID: 20177744 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-010-9757-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2009] [Revised: 02/01/2010] [Accepted: 02/02/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Salicylate-containing phenolic glycosides (PGs) are abundant and often play a dominant role in plant-herbivore interactions of Populus and Salix species (family Salicaceae), but the biosynthetic pathway to PGs remains unclear. Cinnamic acid (CA) is thought to be a precursor of the salicyl moiety of PGs. However, the origin of the 6-hydroxy-2-cyclohexen-on-oyl (HCH) moiety found in certain PGs, such as salicortin, is not known. HCH is of interest because it confers toxicity and antifeedant properties against herbivores. We incubated Populus nigra leaf tissue with stable isotope-labeled CA, benzoates, and salicylates, and measured isotopic incorporation levels into both salicin, the simplest PG, and salicortin. Labeling of salicortin from [13C6]-CA provided the first evidence that HCH, like the salicyl moiety, is a phenylpropanoid derivative. Benzoic acid and benzaldehyde also labeled both salicyl and HCH, while benzyl alcohol labeled only the salicyl moiety in salicortin. Co-administration of unlabeled benzoates with [13C6]-CA confirmed their contribution to the biosynthesis of the salicyl but not the HCH moiety of salicortin. These data suggest that benzoate interconversions may modulate partitioning of phenylpropanoids to salicyl and HCH moieties, and hence toxicity of PGs. Surprisingly, labeled salicyl alcohol and salicylaldehyde were readily converted to salicin, but did not result in labeled salicortin. Co-administration of unlabeled salicylates with labeled CA suggested that salicyl alcohol and salicylaldehyde may have inhibited salicortin biosynthesis. A revised metabolic grid model of PG biosynthesis in Populus is proposed, providing a guide for functional genomic analysis of the PG biosynthetic pathway.
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Alternative splicing and gene duplication differentially shaped the regulation of isochorismate synthase in Populus and Arabidopsis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009; 106:22020-5. [PMID: 19996170 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0906869106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Isochorismate synthase (ICS) converts chorismate to isochorismate for the biosynthesis of phylloquinone, an essential cofactor for photosynthetic electron transport. ICS is also required for salicylic acid (SA) synthesis during Arabidopsis defense. In several other species, including Populus, SA is derived primarily from the phenylpropanoid pathway. We therefore sought to investigate ICS regulation in Populus to learn the extent of ICS involvement in SA synthesis and defense. Arabidopsis harbors duplicated AtICS genes that differ in their exon-intron structure, basal expression, and stress inducibility. In contrast, we found a single ICS gene in Populus and six other sequenced plant genomes, pointing to the AtICS duplication as a lineage-specific event. The Populus ICS encodes a functional plastidic enzyme, and was not responsive to stresses that stimulated phenylpropanoid accumulation. Populus ICS underwent extensive alternative splicing that was rare for the duplicated AtICSs. Sequencing of 184 RT-PCR Populus clones revealed 37 alternative splice variants, with normal transcripts representing approximately 50% of the population. When expressed in Arabidopsis, Populus ICS again underwent alternative splicing, but did not produce normal transcripts to complement AtICS1 function. The splice-site sequences of Populus ICS are unusual, suggesting a causal link between junction sequence, alternative splicing, and ICS function. We propose that gene duplication and alternative splicing of ICS evolved independently in Arabidopsis and Populus in accordance with their distinct defense strategies. AtICS1 represents a divergent isoform for inducible SA synthesis during defense. Populus ICS primarily functions in phylloquinone biosynthesis, a process that can be sustained at low ICS transcript levels.
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Zhao N, Guan J, Forouhar F, Tschaplinski TJ, Cheng ZM, Tong L, Chen F. Two poplar methyl salicylate esterases display comparable biochemical properties but divergent expression patterns. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2009; 70:32-39. [PMID: 19136124 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2008.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2008] [Revised: 10/27/2008] [Accepted: 11/26/2008] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Two genes encoding proteins of 98% sequence identity that are highly homologous to tobacco methyl salicylate (MeSA) esterase (SABP2) were identified and cloned from poplar. Proteins encoded by these two genes displayed specific esterase activities towards MeSA to produce salicylic acid, and are named PtSABP2-1 and PtSABP2-2, respectively. Recombinant PtSABP2-1 and PtSABP2-2 exhibited apparent Km values of 68.2+/-3.8microM and 24.6+/-1microM with MeSA, respectively. Structural modeling using the three-dimensional structure of tobacco SABP2 as a template indicated that the active sites of PtSABP2-1 and PtSABP2-2 were highly similar to that of tobacco SABP2. Under normal growing conditions, PtSABP2-1 showed the highest level of expression in leaves and PtSABP2-2 was most highly expressed in roots. In leaf tissues of poplar plants under stress conditions, the expression of PtSABP2-1 was significantly down-regulated by two stress factors, whereas the expression of PtSABP2-2 was significantly up-regulated by four stress factors. The plausible mechanisms leading to these two highly homologous MeSA esterase genes involved in divergent biological processes in poplar are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Zhao
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Tennessee, 252 Ellington Plant Science Bldg., 2431 Joe Johnson Drive, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
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Wu HS, Raza W, Fan JQ, Sun YG, Bao W, Liu DY, Huang QW, Mao ZS, Shen QR, Miao WG. Antibiotic effect of exogenously applied salicylic acid on in vitro soilborne pathogen, Fusarium oxysporum f.sp.niveum. CHEMOSPHERE 2008; 74:45-50. [PMID: 18952255 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2008.09.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2007] [Revised: 08/29/2008] [Accepted: 09/09/2008] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Salicylic acid, which is biosynthesized inside plant and is often found and accumulated in soil due to plant debris decaying, is considered as a signaling substance during plant-microbe interactions. It is involved in the cycling of biogeochemistry and related to plant resistance to biotic and abiotic stress. The antibiotic effect of salicylic acid on Fusarium oxysporum f.sp.niveum (FON) was studied to investigate the relationships between the salicylic acid and the fungus in the ecological interaction of plant-microbe. Results showed that the biomass, colony diameter, number of conidium germination and conidium production of FON were decreased by 52.0%, 25.7%, 100% and 100% at concentrations of 800 mg L(-1). However, mycotoxin yield was increased by 233%, pectinase activity raised by 168.0% and cellulase activity increased by 1325% compared to control at higher concentrations. It was concluded that salicylic acid as an allelochemical greatly inhibited FON growth and conidia formation and germination, though stimulated mycotoxin production and activities of hydrolytic enzymes by FON.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Sheng Wu
- College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
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