Bioactivity against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus: Nematotoxics from essential oils, essential oils fractions and decoction waters

Nematicidal Activity of Phytochemicals against the Root-Lesion Nematode Pratylenchus penetrans

Plant-parasitic nematodes (PPNs) are highly damaging pests responsible for heavy losses in worldwide productivity in a significant number of important plant crops. Common pest management strategies rely on the use of synthetic chemical nematicides, which have led to serious concerns regarding their impacts on human health and the environment. Plant natural products, or phytochemicals, can provide a good source of agents for sustainable control of PPNs, due to their intrinsic characteristics such as higher biodegradability, generally low toxicity for mammals, and lower bioaccumulation in the environment. In this work, the nematicidal activity of 39 phytochemicals was determined against the root-lesion nematode (RLN) Pratylenchus penetrans using standard direct and indirect contact methodologies. Overall, the RLN was tolerant to the tested phytochemicals at the highest concentration, 2 mg/mL, seldom reaching full mortality. However, high activities were obtained for benzaldehyde, carvacrol, 3-octanol, and thymol, in comparison to other phytochemicals or the synthetic nematicide oxamyl. These phytochemicals were seen to damage nematode internal tissues but not its cuticle shape. Also, the environmental and (eco)toxicological parameters reported for these compounds suggest lower toxicity and higher safety of use than oxamyl. These compounds appear to be good candidates for the development of biopesticides for a more sustainable pest management strategy.

Genista tridentata Phytochemical Characterization and Biological Activities: A Systematic Review

Genista tridentata (L.) Willk., known as "prickled broom", is a Leguminosae (Fabaceae) species native to the Iberian Peninsula, Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. It is used in folk medicine as an anti-inflammatory, for gastrointestinal and respiratory disorders, rheumatism, and headaches, to lower blood pressure, against hypercholesterolemia and hyperglycemia. This study aimed to systematically review the literature on the bioactivities and phytochemical profile of Genista tridentata to understand its pharmacological potential. For this, four electronic databases (PubMed, GoogleScholar, Repositórios Cientificos de Acesso Aberto de Portugal (RCCAP), and ScienceDirect) were searched from inception up to 31 December 2022. From a total of 264 potentially eligible studies considered for screening, 34 papers were considered eligible for this systematic review. The sampling included 71 extracts, collected mainly in Portugal. Genista tridentata extracts present a high level of flavonoids and phenolic compounds. The flowers and aerial parts of the plant were the most studied, and aqueous extracts were the most used. The results predict a high potential for the application of Genista tridentata as a new source of natural antioxidants and preservatives for the food industry with subsequent health benefits, such as the production of nutraceuticals. Moreover, the results indicate that the plant can be collected at all seasons of the year, which represents a benefit for the industry.

Chemical Variability of the Essential Oils from Two Portuguese Apiaceae: Coriandrum sativum L. and Foeniculum vulgare Mill

Coriandrum sativum L. and Foeniculum vulgare Mill. are two aromatic and medicinal Apiaceae species commonly grown in Portugal, whose essential oils (EOs) are used in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetics industries. The present study evaluated EOs isolated from the fruits and vegetative aerial parts (VAPs) of 11 samples of Coriandrum sativum L. and from the fruits of 19 samples of Foeniculum vulgare Mill. The plant material was grown in experimental fields, after collection from several regions of mainland Portugal. The EOs were isolated by hydrodistillation and analyzed by gas chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The coriander EOs analysis evidenced two main clusters, with the first containing the fruits' EOs dominated by linalool (60-73%), γ-terpinene, and α-pinene and the second with the VAPs' EOs, which showed 2-trans-decenal (37-63%) and n-decanal (13-30%) as the main compounds. The fennel EOs analysis revealed two well correlated clusters, the first dominated by estragole (34-76%) and fenchone (16-30%) and the other dominated by trans-anethole (37-56%) and fenchone (14-34%). The present data suggest coriander EOs' chemical descriptors as linalool for the fruits' EOs and 2-trans-decenal with n-decanal for the VAPs' EOs. For the fennel fruit EOs, the putative descriptors were trans-anethole and estragole, with variable fenchone content. The gathered data reinforce the relevance of clarifying variability of these species' EOs, particularly when considering aromatic and medicinal plants with such a wide range of applications.

First Report on the Synergistic Interaction between Essential Oils against the Pinewood Nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus

Control of the pinewood nematode (PWN), the causal agent of pine wilt disease, can be achieved through the trunk injection of nematicides; however, many pesticides have been linked to environmental and human health concerns. Essential oils (EOs) are suitable alternatives due to their biodegradability and low toxicity to mammals. These complex mixtures of plant volatiles often display multiple biological activities and synergistic interactions between their compounds. The present work profiled the toxicity of eight EOs against the PWN in comparison to their 1:1 mixtures, to screen for successful synergistic interactions. Additionally, the main compounds of the most synergistic mixtures were characterized for their predicted environmental fate and toxicity to mammals in comparison to emamectin benzoate, a commercial nematicide used against PWN. The mixtures of Cymbopogon citratus with Mentha piperita and of Foeniculum vulgare with Satureja montana EOs showed the highest activities, with half-maximal effective concentrations (EC₅₀) of 0.09 and 0.05 µL/mL, respectively. For these, complete PWN mortality was reached after only ca. 15 min or 2 h of direct contact, respectively. Their major compounds had a higher predicted affinity to air and water environmental compartments and are reported to have very low toxicity to mammals, with low acute oral and dermal toxicities. In comparison, emamectin benzoate showed lower nematicidal activity, a higher affinity to the soil and sediments environmental compartments and higher reported oral and dermal toxicity to mammals. Overall, uncovering synergistic activities in combinations of EOs from plants of different families may prove to be a source of biopesticides with optimized toxicity against PWNs.

Essential Oils as Nematicides in Plant Protection-A Review

By 2030, the European Commission intends to halve chemical pesticide use and its consequent risks. Among pesticides, nematicides are chemical agents used to control parasitic roundworms in agriculture. In recent decades, researchers have been looking for more sustainable alternatives with the same effectiveness but a limited impact on the environment and ecosystems. Essential oils (EOs) are similar bioactive compounds and potential substitutes. Different studies on the use of EOs as nematicides are available in the Scopus database in the scientific literature. These works show a wider exploration of EO effects in vitro than in vivo on different nematode populations. Nevertheless, a review of which EOs have been used on different target nematodes, and how, is still not available. The aim of this paper is to explore the extent of EO testing on nematodes and which of them have nematicidal effects (e.g., mortality, effects on motility, inhibition of egg production). Particularly, the review aims to identify which EOs have been used the most, on which nematodes, and which formulations have been applied. This study provides an overview of the available reports and data to date, downloaded from Scopus, through (a) network maps created by VOSviewer software (version 1.6.8, Nees Jan van Eck and Ludo Waltman, Leiden, The Netherlands) and (b) a systematic analysis of all scientific papers. VOSviewer created maps with keywords derived from co-occurrence analysis to understand the main keywords used and the countries and journals which have published most on the topic, while the systematic analysis investigated all the documents downloaded. The main goal is to offer a comprehensive understanding of the potential use of EOs in agriculture as well as which directions future research should move toward.

GC-MS Analysis of the Essential Oil from Seseli mairei H. Wolff (Apiaceae) Roots and Their Nematicidal Activity

The essential oil (EO) was extracted from aerial parts with insecticidal and fungicidal activity. Herein, the hydro-distilled essential oils of Seseli mairei H. Wolff roots were determined by GC-MS. A total of 37 components were identified, (E)-beta-caryophyllene (10.49%), β-geranylgeranyl (6.64%), (E)-2-decenal (6.17%) and germacrene-D (4.28%). The essential oil of Seseli mairei H. Wolff had nematicidal toxicity against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus with a LC₅₀ value of 53.45 μg/mL. The subsequent bioassay-guided investigation led to the isolation of three active constituents: falcarinol, (E)-2-decenal, and octanoic acid. The falcarinol demonstrated the strongest toxicity against B. Xylophilus (LC₅₀ = 8.52 μg/mL). The octanoic acid and (E)-2-decenal also exhibited moderate toxicity against B. xylophilus (LC₅₀ = 65.56 and 176.34 μg/mL, respectively). The LC₅₀ of falcarinol for the toxicity of B. xylophilus was 7.7 and 21 times than that of octanoic acid and (E)-2-decenal, respectively. Our findings demonstrate that the essential oil from Seseli mairei H. Wolff roots and their isolates may be developed as a promising natural nematicide.

Ruta angustifolia Pers. (Narrow-Leaved Fringed Rue): Pharmacological Properties and Phytochemical Profile

The genus Ruta in the family Rutaceae includes about 40 species, such as the well-known plants R. graveolens L. (common rue) or R. chalepensis L. (fringed rue), but also much lesser-known species such as R. angustifolia Pers. (narrow-leaved fringed rue). This rue specie, originating from the Mediterranean region, is well-distributed in Southeast Asia, notably in the Indo-Chinese peninsula and other territories. In some countries, such as Malaysia, the plant is used to treat liver diseases and cancer. Extracts of R. angustifolia display antifungal, antiviral and antiparasitic effects. Diverse bioactive natural products have been isolated from the aerial parts of the plant, notably quinoline alkaloids and furocoumarins, which present noticeable anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and/or antiproliferative properties. The present review discusses the main pharmacological properties of the plant and its phytoconstituents, with a focus on the anticancer activities evidenced with diverse alkaloids and terpenoids isolated from the aerial parts of the plant. Quinoline alkaloids such as graveoline, kokusaginine, and arborinine have been characterized and their mode of action defined. Arborinine stands as a remarkable inhibitor of histone demethylase LSD1, endowed with promising anticancer activities. Other anticancer compounds, such as the furocoumarins chalepin and rutamarin, have revealed antitumor effects. Their mechanism of action is discussed together with that of other bioactive natural products, including angustifolin and moskachans. Altogether, R. angustifolia Pers. presents a rich phytochemical profile, fully consistent with the traditional use of the plant to treat cancer. This rue species, somewhat neglected, warrant further investigations as a medicinal plant and a source of inspiration for drug discovery and design.

Essential Oils from Origanum vulgare subsp. virens (Hoffmanns. & Link) Ietsw. Grown in Portugal: Chemical Diversity and Relevance of Chemical Descriptors

Origanum vulgare L. is a well-known aromatic and medicinal plant, whose essential oil (EO) has recognised flavouring and medicinal properties. In this study, Origanum vulgare subsp. virens (Hoffmanns. & Link) Ietsw. EOs, isolated from accessions grown in experimental fields, were evaluated. The plant material was grown from rooted cuttings or nutlets (fruits), originally collected in 20 regions in mainland Portugal and harvesting for EO isolation was performed in two years. EOs were isolated by hydrodistillation and analysed by gas chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, for EO quantification and identification, respectively. EO yields ranged from <0.05-3.3% for rooted cuttings, with oregano samples obtained in Portalegre and Alandroal, respectively. Ninety-one compounds were identified, mainly grouped in oxygen-containing monoterpenes and monoterpene hydrocarbons. EO agglomerative cluster analysis evidenced two main clusters, with the first subdivided into four subclusters. From the obtained data, the putative O. vulgare subsp. virens chemotypes are carvacrol, thymol and linalool, with γ-terpinene, p-cymene, cis- and trans-β-ocimene also contributing as these EOs chemical descriptors. The comparison between the present data and a survey of the existing literature on Portuguese O. vulgare reinforces the major variability of this species' EOs and emphasises the importance of avoiding wild collections to obtain a defined chemical type of crop production of market relevance.

Chemical Characterization and Bioactivity of Commercial Essential Oils and Hydrolates Obtained from Portuguese Forest Logging and Thinning

Essential oils (EOs) and hydrolates (Hds) are natural sources of biologically active ingredients with broad applications in the cosmetic industry. In this study, nationally produced (mainland Portugal and Azores archipelago) EOs (11) and Hds (7) obtained from forest logging and thinning of Eucalyptus globulus, Pinus pinaster, Pinus pinea and Cryptomeria japonica, were chemically evaluated, and their bioactivity and sensorial properties were assessed. EOs and Hd volatiles (HdVs) were analyzed by GC-FID and GC-MS. 1,8-Cineole was dominant in E. globulus EOs and HdVs, and α- and β-pinene in P. pinaster EOs. Limonene and α-pinene led in P. pinea and C. japonica EOs, respectively. P. pinaster and C. japonica HVs were dominated by α-terpineol and terpinen-4-ol, respectively. The antioxidant activity was determined by DPPH, ORAC and ROS. C. japonica EO showed the highest antioxidant activity, whereas one of the E. globulus EOs showed the lowest. Antimicrobial activity results revealed different levels of efficacy for Eucalyptus and Pinus EOs while C. japonica EO showed no antimicrobial activity against the selected strains. The perception and applicability of emulsions with 0.5% of EOs were evaluated through an in vivo sensory study. C. japonica emulsion, which has a fresh and earthy odour, was chosen as the most pleasant fragrance (60%), followed by P. pinea emulsion (53%). In summary, some of the studied EOs and Hds showed antioxidant and antimicrobial activities and they are possible candidates to address the consumers demand for more sustainable and responsibly sourced ingredients.

Gene sdaB Is Involved in the Nematocidal Activity of Enterobacter ludwigii AA4 Against the Pine Wood Nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus

Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, a plant parasitic nematode, is the causal agent of pine wilt, a devastating forest tree disease. Essentially, no efficient methods for controlling B. xylophilus and pine wilt disease have yet been developed. Enterobacter ludwigii AA4, isolated from the root of maize, has powerful nematocidal activity against B. xylophilus in a new in vitro dye exclusion test. The corrected mortality of the B. xylophilus treated by E. ludwigii AA4 or its cell extract reached 98.3 and 98.6%, respectively. Morphological changes in B. xylophilus treated with a cell extract from strain AA4 suggested that the death of B. xylophilus might be caused by an increased number of vacuoles in non-apoptotic cell death and the damage to tissues of the nematodes. In a greenhouse test, the disease index of the seedlings of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) treated with the cells of strain AA4 plus B. xylophilus or those treated by AA4 cell extract plus B. xylophilus was 38.2 and 30.3, respectively, was significantly lower than 92.5 in the control plants treated with distilled water and B. xylophilus. We created a sdaB gene knockout in strain AA4 by deleting the gene that was putatively encoding the beta-subunit of L-serine dehydratase through Red homologous recombination. The nematocidal and disease-suppressing activities of the knockout strain were remarkably impaired. Finally, we revealed a robust colonization of P. sylvestris seedling needles by E. ludwigii AA4, which is supposed to contribute to the disease-controlling efficacy of strain AA4. Therefore, E. ludwigii AA4 has significant potential to serve as an agent for the biological control of pine wilt disease caused by B. xylophilus.

Variation in the Antibacterial and Antioxidant Activities of Essential Oils of Five New Eucalyptus urophylla S.T. Blake Clones in Thailand

Eucalyptus oils are widely used for a variety of purposes. This study investigates the terpenoid compositions and antibacterial and antioxidant activities of eucalypt leaf oils extracted from four E. urophylla clones and one E. urophylla × E. camaldulensis hybrid clone grown in Thailand. According to GC/MS analysis, the E. urophylla oils were mainly composed of 1,8-cineole, α-terpinyl acetate, β-caryophyllene, and spathulenol, while 1,8-cineole, α-terpinyl acetate, p-cymene, and γ-terpinene were mostly identified in the hybrid oil. All eucalypt oils exhibited a significant bacteriostatic effect against Gram-positive bacteria, Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, and Bacillus cereus. Only the hybrid oil had an effect on all Gram-negative bacteria tested, including Salmonella typhi, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter aerogenes. These oils have antibacterial properties that vary according to their terpenoid content. Only the hybrid oil had a potent antioxidant effect, with an IC₅₀ value of 4.21 ± 0.35 mg/mL for free radical (DPPH) scavenging. This oil's antioxidant effect may be a result of the phenolic terpenoids, thymol and carvacrol. As a result, these oils may be a novel source of antibacterial and antioxidant agents. Additionally, the antibacterial and antioxidant capabilities of the E. urophylla × E. camaldulensis hybrid essential oil are reported for the first time.

Phytochemicals as Biopesticides against the Pinewood Nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus: A Review on Essential Oils and Their Volatiles

The impacts of a rapidly changing environment together with the growth in global trade activities has promoted new plant pest pandemic events in forest ecosystems. The pinewood nematode (PWN), Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, causes strong worldwide economic and ecological impacts. Direct control is performed through trunk injection of powerful nematicides, however many of these (hemi)synthetic compounds have raised ecological and human health concerns for affecting non-target species and accumulating in food products. As sustainable alternatives, essential oils (EOs) have shown very promising results. In this work, available literature on the direct activity of EOs against PWN is reviewed, as a contribution to advance the search for safer and greener biopesticides to be used in sustainable PWD pest management strategies. For the first time, important parameters concerning the bioassays performed, the PWNs bioassayed, and the EOs used are summarized and comparatively analyzed. Ultimately, an overview of the chemical composition of the most active EOs allowed to uncover preliminary guidelines for anti-PWN EO efficiency. The analysis of important information on the volatile phytochemicals composing nematicidal EOs provides a solid basis to engineer sustainable biopesticides capable of controlling the PWN under an integrated pest management framework and contributes to improved forest health.

Essential Oil Composition From Cryptomeria japonica D.Don Grown in Azores: Biomass Valorization From Forest Management

Cryptomeria japonica biomass was obtained monthly from forest lumbering operations at São Miguel, Terceira and Pico (Azores), between May 2018 and June 2020. C japonica stands with different ages (2 to ±50 years), grown in different soil types (lithosol and andosol) and at different altitudes (200 to >800 m) were used. The chemical composition of 118 C japonica essential oil (EO) samples, plus 1 sample from an EO solid deposit, were analyzed by gas chromatography and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Chemical composition cluster analysis showed 2 clusters, cluster I and II, with no chemical correlation. Cluster I grouped all 117 EO samples that resulted from extraction of branches and foliage with, or without, strobili, from strobili, and from the solid deposit sample. Cluster II grouped the 2 samples of EO isolated from wood, with a markedly different composition. Cluster I showed 5 subclusters (Ia-Ie). The degree of chemical correlation between the samples in these subclusters varied between moderate (subclusters Id and Ie), high (subclusters Ib and Ic), and very high (subcluster Ia). Of the 119 samples, 94 (79% of the total) were included in subcluster Ia, with 66 samples from São Miguel, 2 from Terceira, and 26 from Pico, showing a yield range from 0.1% to 0.4% (v/w). All these samples, with a high chemical correlation, were obtained by steam distillation from branches and foliage with, or without, female or male strobili, or both. This subcluster did not show any grouping pattern regarding the collection month, the altitude (200 to >800 m), the soil type (lithosol, andosol, or its subtypes), or the wood age (±30 to ±50 years). Subcluster Ia was characterized by the dominance of α-pinene (13%-43%), sabinene (5%-25%), phyllocladene (2%-22%), limonene (2%-16%), kaurene (traces-13%), elemol (1%-11%), and terpinen-4-ol (1%-7%). The determination of the concentration limits of the EOs representative components confirmed the homogeneity of C japonica EO, obtained from plant material collected in the 3 Azores islands, despite the variability in the range of some diterpenes that deserves further study. This study allowed for the determination of the concentration limits of the EOs representative components, with the purpose of adding value to C japonica EO, obtained from forest lumbering.

Ruta Essential Oils: Composition and Bioactivities

Ruta L. is a typical genus of the citrus family, Rutaceae Juss. and comprises ca. 40 different species, mainly distributed in the Mediterranean region. Ruta species have long been used in traditional medicines as an abortifacient and emmenagogue and for the treatment of lung diseases and microbial infections. The genus Ruta is rich in essential oils, which predominantly contain aliphatic ketones, e.g., 2-undecanone and 2-nonanone, but lack any significant amounts of terpenes. Three Ruta species, Ruta chalepensis L., Ruta graveolens L., and Ruta montana L., have been extensively studied for the composition of their essential oils and several bioactivities, revealing their potential medicinal and agrochemical applications. This review provides a systematic evaluation and critical appraisal of publications available in the literature on the composition and bioactivities of the essential oils obtained from Ruta species and includes a brief outlook of the potential applications of nanotechnology and chitosan-based products of Ruta essential oils.

Chemical Composition and Nematicidal Properties of Sixteen Essential Oils-A Review

Essential oils (EOs) can be a large source of new food-safe and healthy nematicidal products, due to their strong activity on crop pathogens and pests, including phytoparasitic nematodes, as well as to their low environmental persistence. This review summarizes the results from our 10-year studies on chemical features and nematicidal properties of 16 EOs with different botanical origins and compositions, i.e., the EOs from Artemisia herba-alba Asso (Asteraceae), Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J. Presl. and Cinnamomum verum J. Presl. (Lauraceae), Citrus aurantium L., Cinnamomum. sinensis L. Osbeck and Ruta graveolens L. (Rutaceae), Eucalyptus citriodora Hook, Eucalyptus globulus Labill. and Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Marry et Perry (Myrtaceae), Mentha piperita L., Monarda didyma L., Monarda. fistulosa L., Rosmarinus officinalis L. and Thymus satureioides Cosson (Lamiaceae), Pelargonium asperum Ehrh ex Willd (Geraniaceae) and Schinus molle L. (Anacardiaceae). All these EOs were chemically characterized and tested in vitro and/or in vivo for their activity against the phytoparasitic species Meloidogyne incognita Kofoid et White (Chitw.), Pratylenchus vulnus Allen et Jensen and Xiphinema index Thorne et Allen. Toxicity bioassays were conducted by exposing 2nd stage juveniles (J2) of M. incognita, mixed-age specimens of P. vulnus and adult females of X. index to 2-100 μg mL-1 concentrations of EOs or EO's major constituents for 4-96 h and checking mortality effect after a further 24-72 h permanence in water. Egg hatchability bioassays consisted in exposing (24-48 h) M. incognita egg masses to 500-1000 mg mL-1 EO solutions followed by a 5-week hatching test in water. The in vivo experiments were undertaken in sandy soil strongly infested by M. incognita and treated with different doses of EOs, applied either in water solution or by fumigation. The effects of the treatments on nematode infestation on tomato and in soil were checked at the end of each experiment. Structure-activity relationships, as suggested by the different chemical compositions of tested EOs, were also highlighted. In agreement with literature data, our studies indicated that most of the tested EOs are highly suitable for the formulation of new safe nematicides, though still retarded by the lack of efficient stabilization processes and standardized EOs' components and extraction techniques.

Effect of Essential Oils on the Release of TNF-α and CCL2 by LPS-Stimulated THP‑1 Cells

Plants and their constituents have been used to treat diverse ailments since time immemorial. Many plants are used in diverse external and internal formulations (infusions, alcoholic extracts, essential oils (EOs), etc.) in the treatment of inflammation-associated diseases, such as those affecting the respiratory tract or causing gastrointestinal or joint problems, among others. To support the traditional uses of plant extracts, EOs have been assessed for their alleged anti-inflammatory properties. However, the effect of EOs on the release of cytokines and chemokines has been much less reported. Considering their traditional use and commercial relevance in Portugal and Angola, this study evaluated the effect of EOs on the in vitro inhibition of the cytokine tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and the chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2 (CCL2) by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated human acute monocytic leukemia cells (THP-1 cells). Twenty EOs extracted from eighteen species from seven families, namely from Amaranthaceae (Dysphania ambrosioides), Apiaceae (Foeniculum vulgare), Asteraceae (Brachylaena huillensis, Solidago virgaurea), Euphorbiaceae (Spirostachys africana), Lamiaceae (Lavandula luisieri, Mentha cervina, Origanum majorana, Satureja montana, Thymbra capitata, Thymus mastichina, Thymus vulgaris, Thymus zygis subsp. zygis), Myrtaceae (Eucalyptus globulus subsp. maidenii, Eucalyptus radiata, Eucalyptus viminalis) and Pinaceae (Pinus pinaster) were assayed for the release of CCL2 and TNF-α by LPS-stimulated THP-1 cells. B. huillensis, S. africana, S. montana, Th. mastichina and Th. vulgaris EOs showed toxicity to THP-1 cells, at the lowest concentration tested (10 μg/mL), using the tetrazolium dye assay. The most active EOs in reducing TNF-α release by LPS-stimulated THP-1 cells were those of T. capitata (51% inhibition at 20 μg/mL) and L. luisieri (15-23% inhibition at 30 μg/mL and 78-83% inhibition at 90 μg/mL). L. luisieri EO induced a concentration-dependent inhibition of CCL2 release by LPS‑stimulated THP-1 cells (23%, 54% and 82% inhibition at 10, 30 and 90 μg/mL, respectively). These EOs are potentially useful in the management of inflammatory diseases mediated by CCL2 and TNF‑α, such as atherosclerosis and arthritis.

Thymus mastichina: Composition and Biological Properties with a Focus on Antimicrobial Activity

Thymus mastichina has the appearance of a semishrub and can be found in jungles and rocky lands of the Iberian Peninsula. This work aimed to review and gather available scientific information on the composition and biological properties of T. mastichina. The main constituents of T. mastichina essential oil are 1,8-cineole (or eucalyptol) and linalool, while the extracts are characterized by the presence of flavonoids, phenolic acids, and terpenes. The essential oil and extracts of T. mastichina have demonstrated a wide diversity of biological activities. They showed antibacterial activity against several bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, Salmonella subsp., methicillin-resistant and methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes EGD, Bacillus cereus, and Pseudomonas, among others, and antifungal activity against Candida spp. and Fusarium spp. Additionally, it has antioxidant activity, which has been evaluated through different methods. Furthermore, other activities have also been studied, such as anticancer, antiviral, insecticidal, repellent, anti-Alzheimer, and anti-inflammatory activity. In conclusion, considering the biological activities reported for the essential oil and extracts of T. mastichina, its potential as a preservative agent could be explored to be used in the food, cosmetic, or pharmaceutical industries.

Relationship between Chemical Composition and Nematicidal Activity of Different Essential Oils

In this study, the relationship between nematicidal activity and chemical composition of ten essential oils (EOs) from different plant species was investigated both in in vitro assays on juveniles (J2) and eggs of the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita and in experiments on tomato in soil infested by M. incognita. Nematode J2 were exposed for 4, 8 or 24 h to 0.78-100 μg mL^-1 concentrations of each EO, whereas 24, 48 or 96 h exposures to 250, 500 and 1000 μg mL^-1 solutions were tested on M. incognita egg masses. Treatments with 50, 100 or 200 μg kg soil rates of each EO were applied in the experiment on potted tomato. The highest nematicidal potential resulted for the C. verum EO, as highly toxic to both M. incognitaJ2 and eggs and strongly suppressive on nematode multiplication on tomato roots. The infestation of M. incognita on tomato roots was also strongly reduced by the EOs from E. citriodora and S. aromaticum, both highly toxic to M. incognitaJ2 but less active on nematode eggs. Adversely, R. graveolens EO strongly inhibited the egg hatch but was limitedly toxic to the infective J2. Chemical composition of the EOs was determined by GC-FID and GC-MS. The ten EOs showed a very different chemical composition in terms of major phytochemicals, with one or two dominant components totally amounting up to 85%. The structure-activity relationship based on the main phytochemicals identified in the assayed EOs and their nematicidal effects on M. incognita was also discussed. Results from this study confirmed that the selection of suitable EO raw materials can lead to the formulation on new effective nematicidal products.

Genus Ruta: A natural source of high value products with biological and pharmacological properties

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ruta genus is constituted by ten species, of which the most commonly described are R. chalepensis and R. graveolens. Ruta plants are perennial shrubs belonging to the family Rutaceae, which are traditionally used in folk medicine, since ancient times mostly for the treatment of various ailments of the womb.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To provide a review of the different uses of Ruta species in traditional medicine, as well as, on their multifactorial biological and pharmacological properties.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A search of the literature on genus Ruta and Ruta species was performed using various scientific databases and search engines and the information of articles were reviewed and compiled.

RESULTS

Different parts of the plants belonging to Ruta genus are used in folk medicine to treat a wide range of different diseases. The principal use of these is in gynaecological field, but the treatment of pain, fever, nausea, inflammation, infections, nervous disorders, among others, are also described. These plants have been used to fertility regulation, as anti-fertility agent, to control menstrual flux and bleedings, as abortifacient and as contraceptive. The phytochemical composition of these plants consists mainly in essential oil (EO), but phenolic compounds were also reported, like coumarins and flavonoids, as well as alkaloids. Ruta species products like extracts and EOs have shown broad pharmacological activities, such as antimicrobial and antifungal activities, as well as, antiviral and antiparasitic. Moreover, Ruta plants products present antioxidant, neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer and anti-diabetic activities and demonstrated contraceptive and abortifacient effects. These plants were also tested to be used for non-therapeutic approaches, as bio-insecticides in the control of different insect pests showing to be able to reduce infestation.

CONCLUSIONS

Ruta species could be a potential source of natural products with biological activities. Ruta extracts, essential oils and isolated compounds have shown a diverse potential for use in the treatment of different diseases, as well as, for pests control, contributing to the valorisation of these plants. Nonetheless, this review indicates that more studies are needed to demonstrate the full potential of Ruta species, and to further explore the toxicology and safety of these plants.

Essential oils for managing Pratylenchus penetrans on Easter lilies

Easter lily bulbs for greenhouse forcing are produced in Del Norte County, California and Curry County, Oregon, USA. Pratylenchus penetrans infestation seriously affects growth of field grown bulbs. During two consecutive years of field trials containing 22 treatments, commercially prepared formulations of essential oils (EOs) were compared to an untreated control and to a standard chemical fumigant treatment (FU) (1,3-dichloropropene and metam sodium) applied preplant followed by phorate (PH) at planting to determine their value in the management of lesion nematode, and in improving plant health. The EO products Duogard, EF400, EF300, and Cinnamite were tested as preplant dips to bulblet planting stock. The treated bulblets were tested either alone, in combination with PH at-planting, at planting following FU or in combination with PH at planting following FU. The organophosphates ethoprop and fosthiazate were also tested either alone, or at a reduced rate in combination with a reduced rate of PH. With respect to bulb circumference, ten treatments consistently outperformed the control. In consecutive years, three treatments had healthier looking roots than the control. At harvest, levels of lesion nematode within roots were consistently lower in nine treatments. EOs were beneficial in mitigating nematode damage.

The Effect of Nanocoatings Enriched with Essential Oils on 'Rocha' Pear Long Storage

The effect of coating 'Rocha' pears with alginate-based nanoemulsions enriched with lemongrass essential oil (LG) or citral (Cit) was investigated. Fruit were treated with the nanoemulsions: sodium alginate 2% (w/w) + citral 1% (w/w) (Cit1%); sodium alginate 2% (w/w) + citral 2% (w/w) (Cit2%); sodium alginate 2% (w/w) + lemongrass 1.25% (w/w) (LG1.25%); sodium alginate 2% (w/w) + lemongrass 2.5% (w/w) (LG2.5%). Then, fruit were stored at 0 °C and at 95% relative humidity, for six months. Fruit samples were taken after two, four and six months, and then placed at 22 °C. Upon removal and after 7 d shelf-life, fruit were evaluated for colour CIE (L*, h◦), firmness, soluble solids content (SSC), titratable acidity (TA), weight loss, electrolytic leakage, microbial growth, symptoms of superficial scald and internal browning. All nanoemulsions had droplets in the nano range <500 nm, showed uniformity of particle size and stable dispersion. Cit-nanoemulsions had lower droplet size and higher stability than LG. No nanoemulsion showed cytotoxicity. Coatings reduced fruit colour evolution and preserved better firmness than control. After shelf-life, better firmness was found in LG-coated fruit. Coatings did not affect SSC and TA. Microbial growth was below the safety limits in all treatments. Fruit treated with LG-nanoemulsions did not show scald symptoms and panelists preferred LG1.25% coated fruit. Cit2% treated fruit showed the highest scald and internal browning symptoms, while LG1.25% did not show any disorders. This study suggests that LG-nanocoatings have the potential for preserving the quality of 'Rocha' pear.

Nanostructuring lipid carriers using Ridolfia segetum (L.) Moris essential oil

The therapeutic potential of essential oils is widely recognized since antiquity, due to their antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory and immuno-modulatory properties. In particular, their physicochemical characteristics, such as lipophilicity and permeation enhancement effect have sparked attention for the development of innovative lipid nanosystems. The present work aimed at developing a differentiated nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) based formulation for topical application, using the Ridolfia segetum essential oil (REO), isolated by hydrodistillation from this Portuguese aromatic plant, with a dual key function, as active and simultaneously nanostructuring component of the nanoparticles. The incorporation of the essential oil in the solid lipid matrix, followed by the respective hot high-pressure homogenization, led to particles with a size of 143 ± 5 nm, along with a polydispersity index of 0.21, a zeta potential of -16.3 ± 0.6 mV, encapsulation efficacy of ca. 100% and loading capacity of 1.4%. A comprehensive physicochemical characterization of the lipid nanosystem, including morphology, structural, thermal and accelerated stability analysis confirmed its nanostructured nature. REO-NLC was further jellified for designing an appropriate semisolid topical dosage form. In vitro release, permeation and skin retention studies evidenced a sustained release behaviour and a reservoir-like effect, suitable for a prolonged topical delivery. Cytotoxicity studies, performed in fibroblasts and keratinocytes, revealed the biocompatibility of the developed formulations. This work highlights the critical role of REO as a multiaddressable compound, both as active pharmaceutical ingredient and nanostructuring agent, able to tailor the permeation enhancement profile of nanoparticles towards topical delivery purposes and concomitantly presenting a safety profile for cosmetic and/or pharmaceutical purposes.

Antibacterial, Antioxidant, and Antiproliferative Activities of Corymbia citriodora and the Essential Oils of Eight Eucalyptus Species

Background: Essential oils (EOs) have shown antimicrobial, antioxidant, and antiproliferative activity, which may, alone or in combination with other substances, potentially be used for the development of new drugs. However, their chemical variability, depending on the species, varieties, or geographical origin (among other factors) determines different bioactivities that need to be evaluated. Methods: The antioxidant activity of Corymbia citriodora and eight Eucalyptus species EOs was determined using two different methods: the scavenging ability of 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS+•) and peroxyl free radicals or oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC). Antibacterial activity was evaluated using the microorganisms Streptococcus pneumoniae (strains D39 and TIGR4), and Haemophilus influenza (strain DSM 9999). The essential oils’ minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) was assessed using a microdilution method. The antiproliferative activity was determined using the THP-1 cell line (human acute monocytic leukaemia) with methylthiazolyldiphenyl-tetrazolium bromide assay (MTT). Results:Corymbia citriodora and Eucalyptus viminalis EOs showed the highest ABTS and peroxyl free radical scavenging capacity. Eucalyptus globulus EO showed a high potential to treat Streptococcus pneumoniae infections. Haemophilus influenzae was the respiratory pathogen that showed the highest resistance to all EOs, including tea tree EO. After 96 h of incubation, at 25 μg/mL, Eucalyptus radiata and Eucalyptus viminalis EOs showed highest cytotoxic activity against the THP-1 cell line. Conclusions: Despite their specific bioactivities, no single EO showed simultaneously good antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antiproliferative activity.

Nematotoxic coumarins from Angelica pubescens Maxim. f. biserrata Shan et Yuan roots and their physiological effects on Bursaphelenchus xylophilus

The ethanol extracts from the roots of Angelica pubescens Maxim. f. biserrata Shan et Yuan was toxic against the pine wood nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. The ethyl acetate-soluble fraction derived from this extract increased its potency with a mortality of 95.25% in 72 hr at 1.0 mg/mL. Four nematotoxic coumarins were obtained from the ethyl acetate extract by bioassay-guided isolation. These were identified as osthole 1, columbianadin 2, bergapten 3 and xanthotoxin 4 by mass and nuclear magnetic resonance spectral data analysis. The LC50 values against B. xylophilus in 72 hr were 489.17, 406.74, 430.08, and 435.66 μM, respectively. These compounds also altered the smooth morphology of the B. xylophilus exoskeleton to a rough and pitted appearance as visualized by electron microscopy. The coumarins 1-4 possessed significant acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activities but had negligible effects on amylase and cellulase. This research provides additional clues to the nematotoxic mechanism of coumarins against the pine wood nematode B. xylophilus. This work will assist in the development of coumarin nematicides with enhanced activity using molecular modifications of the core coumarin structure.

The ethanol extracts from the roots of Angelica pubescens Maxim. f. biserrata Shan et Yuan was toxic against the pine wood nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. The ethyl acetate-soluble fraction derived from this extract increased its potency with a mortality of 95.25% in 72 hr at 1.0 mg/mL. Four nematotoxic coumarins were obtained from the ethyl acetate extract by bioassay-guided isolation. These were identified as osthole 1, columbianadin 2, bergapten 3 and xanthotoxin 4 by mass and nuclear magnetic resonance spectral data analysis. The LC50 values against B. xylophilus in 72 hr were 489.17, 406.74, 430.08, and 435.66 μM, respectively. These compounds also altered the smooth morphology of the B. xylophilus exoskeleton to a rough and pitted appearance as visualized by electron microscopy. The coumarins 1-4 possessed significant acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activities but had negligible effects on amylase and cellulase. This research provides additional clues to the nematotoxic mechanism of coumarins against the pine wood nematode B. xylophilus. This work will assist in the development of coumarin nematicides with enhanced activity using molecular modifications of the core coumarin structure.

Phytochemicals and Biological Activities of Laurel Tree (Laurus nobilis)

This review summarizes the chemical composition reported up to date on Laurus nobilis L. (Lauraceae), an evergreen shrub or tree cultivated for its aromatic leaves and ornamental interest. It has been focused on non-volatile phytochemicals such as sesquiterpene lactones, flavonoids and proanthocyanidins, among others. Moreover, biological activities of laurel extracts and pure compounds have also been reviewed.

Phytochemical Characterization and Biological Evaluation of the Aqueous and Supercritical Fluid Extracts from Salvia sclareoides Brot

Plants belonging to the genus Salvia (Lamiaceae) are known to have a wide range of biological properties. In this work, extracts obtained from the aerial parts of Salvia sclareoides Brot. were evaluated to investigate their chemical composition, toxicity, bioactivity, and stability under in vitro gastrointestinal conditions. The composition of the supercritical fluid extract was determined by GC and GC-MS, while the identification of the infusion constituents was performed by HPLC-DAD and LC-MS. The in vitro cytotoxicity of both extracts (0-2 mg/mL) was evaluated in Caco-2 cell lines by the MTT assay. The anti-inflammatory and anticholinesterase activities were determined through the inhibition of cyclooxygenase-1 and acetylcholinesterase enzymes, while β-carotene/linoleic acid bleaching test and the DPPH assays were used to evaluate the antioxidant activity. The infusion inhibited cyclooxygenase-1 (IC50 = 271.0 μg/mL), and acetylcholinesterase (IC50 = 487.7 μg/ mL) enzymes, also demonstrated significant antioxidant properties, as evaluated by the DPPH (IC50 = 10.4 μg/mL) and β-carotene/linoleic acid (IC50 = 30.0 μg/mL) assays. No remarkable alterations in the composition or in the bioactivities of the infusion were observed after in vitro digestion, which supports the potential of S. sclareoides as a source of bioactive ingredients with neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties.

Bioactivities of a New Pyrrolidine Alkaloid from the Root Barks of Orixa japonica

A new pyrrolidine alkaloid named (Z)-3-(4-hydroxybenzylidene)-4-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-1-methylpyrrolidin-2-one was isolated from the ethanol extract of the root barks of Orixa japonica. The structure of the new alkaloid was elucidated on the basis of NMR and MS analysis. The compound exhibited larvicidal activity against the fourth instar larvae of Aedes aegypti (LC₅₀ = 232.09 μg/mL), Anopheles sinensis (LC₅₀ = 49.91 μg/mL), and Culex pipiens pallens (LC₅₀ = 161.10 μg/mL). The new alkaloid also possessed nematicidal activity against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC₅₀ = 391.50 μg/mL) and Meloidogynein congnita (LC₅₀ = 134.51 μg/mL). The results indicate that the crude ethanol extract of O. japonica root barks and its isolated pyrrolidine alkaloid have potential for development into natural larvicides and nematicides.

Inhibitory effect of essential oils on growth and on aflatoxins production by Aspergillus parasiticus

The aim of this work was to assess the inhibitory effect of essential oils on the growth and aflatoxin production of Aspergillus parasiticus, as well as to correlate it with the chemical composition of the essential oils. Essential oils from six aromatic species (Cymbopogon citratus, Eucalyptus globulus, Origanum vulgare, Ruta graveolens, Salvia officinalis, Satureja montana) were characterised by gas chromatography and tested for their inhibitory effect against A. parasiticus strain MUM 92.02. Furthermore, the in vitro inhibitory effects of these essential oils on the production of aflatoxins were evaluated by HPLC. Results showed that all essential oils retarded the time for visible growth. Growth rate was affected differently depending on the essential oil. S. montana essential oil prevented growth in all cases. The essential oil of R. graveolens inhibited most of the aflatoxin production even though growth inhibition was low, while with C. citratus essential oil trace levels of aflatoxins were detected. Essential oils containing carvacrol and/or thymol (S. montana and O. vulgare) have the highest activity against fungal growth, while an essential oil (R. graveolens) containing 2-undecanone and 8-phenyl-2-octanone inhibited the synthesis of aflatoxins. Although the main component of this essential oil was 2-undecanone (91%), when pure 2-undecanone was tested, it did not inhibit aflatoxin production. Inhibition activity is probably due to the recently identified minor compound or to a synergistic effect. Essential oils seem to be a good alternative to fungicides not only because of environmental issues but also because they do not seem to enhance mycotoxin production as it has been reported for some fungicides.

Bioactivity of Ruta graveolens and Satureja montana Essential Oils on Solanum tuberosum Hairy Roots and Solanum tuberosum Hairy Roots with Meloidogyne chitwoodi Co-cultures

As a nematotoxics screening biotechnological system, Solanum tuberosum hairy roots (StHR) and S. tuberosum hairy roots with Meloidogyne chitwoodi co-cultures (StHR/CRKN) were evaluated, with and without the addition of the essential oils (EOs) of Satureja montana and Ruta graveolens. EOs nematotoxic and phytotoxic effects were followed weekly by evaluating nematode population density in the co-cultures as well as growth and volatile profiles of both in vitro cultures types. Growth, measured by the dissimilation method and by fresh and dry weight determination, was inhibited after EO addition. Nematode population increased in control cultures, while in EO-added cultures numbers were kept stable. In addition to each of the EOs main components, and in vitro cultures constitutive volatiles, new volatiles were detected by gas chromatography and gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry in both culture types. StHR with CRKN co-cultures showed to be suitable for preliminary assessment of nematotoxic EOs.

Identification of Nematicidal Constituents of Notopterygium incisum Rhizomes against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus and Meloidogyne incognita

During a screening program for new agrochemicals from Chinese medicinal herbs, the ethanol extract of Notopterygium incisum rhizomes was found to possess strong nematicidal activity against the two species of nematodes, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus and Meloidogyne incognita. Based on bioactivity-guided fractionation, the four constituents were isolated from the ethanol extract and identified as columbianetin, falcarindiol, falcarinol, and isoimperatorin. Among the four isolated constituents, two acetylenic compounds, falcarindiol and falcarinol (2.20-12.60 μg/mL and 1.06-4.96 μg/mL, respectively) exhibited stronger nematicidal activity than two furanocoumarins, columbianetin, and isoimperatorin (21.83-103.44 μg/mL and 17.21-30.91 μg/mL, respectively) against the two species of nematodes, B. xylophilus and M. incognita. The four isolated constituents also displayed phototoxic activity against the nematodes. The results indicate that the ethanol extract of N. incisum and its four isolated constituents have potential for development into natural nematicides for control of plant-parasitic nematodes.

Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory and Anti-hyperglycaemic Activities of Essential Oils from Thymbra capitata, Thymus albicans, Thymus caespititius, Thymus carnosus, Thymus lotocephalus and Thymus mastichina from Portugal

The in vitro antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-hyperglycaemic, and anti-acetylcholinesterase activities of the essential oils (EOs) isolated from six Lamiaceae species ( Thymbra capitata, Thymus albicans, Th. caespititius, Th. carnosus, Th. lotocephalus and Th. mastichina) grown in Portugal, were evaluated. Th. caespititius and T. capitata carvacrol/thymol-rich EOs showed the best capacity for preventing lipid peroxidation, and scavenging the 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS) and peroxyl free radicals, as well as for inhibiting lipoxygenase and α-amylase. However, Th. caespititius and Th. lotocephalus 1,8-cineole and linalool rich EOs were the best inhibitors of α-glucosidase. T. capitata, Th. lotocephalus and Th. albicans EOs were the most active for inhibiting acetylcholinesterase. Th. caespititius and Th. mastichina EOs were the main scavengers of nitric oxide (NO) radicals. The comparison between the present data with a survey of the existing literature on the in vitro biological activities of the essential oils isolated from the same species from Portuguese origin, using other methodologies, showed some differences. For instance the use of two oxidizable substrates (egg yolk and lecithin liposomes) led to distinct results mainly for those samples with relatively low activity. In addition, the EOs capacity for scavenging peroxyl radicals was also influenced by the presence of cyclodextrins, as a synergism seemed to occur between EOs and those carbohydrates.

Antioxidant and Antiproliferative Activities of the Essential Oils from Thymbra capitata and Thymus Species Grown in Portugal

The antioxidant and antiproliferative activities of the essential oils from Thymbra capitata and Thymus species grown in Portugal were evaluated. Thymbra and Thymus essential oils were grouped into two clusters: Cluster I in which carvacrol, thymol, p-cymene, α-terpineol, and γ-terpinene dominated and Cluster II in which thymol and carvacrol were absent and the main constituent was linalool. The ability for scavenging ABTS^•+ and peroxyl free radicals as well as for preventing the growth of THP-1 leukemia cells was better in essential oils with the highest contents of thymol and carvacrol. These results show the importance of these two terpene-phenolic compounds as antioxidants and cytotoxic agents against THP-1 cells.

In vitro co-cultures of Pinus pinaster with Bursaphelenchus xylophilus: a biotechnological approach to study pine wilt disease

Co-cultures of Pinus pinaster with Bursaphelenchus xylophilus were established as a biotechnological tool to evaluate the effect of nematotoxics addition in a host/parasite culture system. The pinewood nematode (PWN), Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, the causal agent of pine wilt disease (PWD), was detected for the first time in Europe in 1999 spreading throughout the pine forests in Portugal and recently in Spain. Plant in vitro cultures may be a useful experimental system to investigate the plant/nematode relationships in loco, thus avoiding the difficulties of field assays. In this study, Pinus pinaster in vitro cultures were established and compared to in vivo 1 year-old plantlets by analyzing shoot structure and volatiles production. In vitro co-cultures were established with the PWN and the effect of the phytoparasite on in vitro shoot structure, water content and volatiles production was evaluated. In vitro shoots showed similar structure and volatiles production to in vivo maritime pine plantlets. The first macroscopic symptoms of PWD were observed about 4 weeks after in vitro co-culture establishment. Nematode population in the culture medium increased and PWNs were detected in gaps of the callus tissue and in cavities developed from the degradation of cambial cells. In terms of volatiles main components, plantlets, P. pinaster cultures, and P. pinaster with B. xylophilus co-cultures were all β- and α-pinene rich. Co-cultures may be an easy-to-handle biotechnological approach to study this pathology, envisioning the understanding of and finding ways to restrain this highly devastating nematode.

A pharmacological and phytochemical overview on Satureja

CONTEXT

Satureja (Lamiaceae) species are used as flavoring compounds in food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries because of its sweetness and simple cultivation characteristics. They have traditionally been used as muscle pain relievers, tonic, and carminative agents to treat stomach and intestinal disorders such as cramps, nausea, indigestion, and diarrhea, due to their considerable phytochemical characteristics.

OBJECTIVE

This review evaluates some information published since 1989 on Satureja genus from a systematic perspective in terms of its pharmacological and phytochemical characteristics.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases were searched up to March 2014. "Satureja" was used as a research term without narrowing or limiting research elements. After obtaining all reports from database (a total number is about 637), the papers were carefully analyzed in order to find data related to the topic of this review.

RESULTS

In this review, 453 reports were used which were published between 1989 and 2014. The study was compiled into two sections (Pharmacology and Phytochemistry). In the pharmacology section, more than 50 different activities were studied. In the second section, in addition to other compounds and inorganic substances, volatiles, phenolic acids, and flavonoids were discussed.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

According to our contemporary information, Satureja species have been evaluated for their wide range of biological activities. However, a small part of these studies have been carried out on the active principles. Therefore, in the future, more studies should be carried out to identify responsible phytochemicals for the various activities.