Acute fish oil supplementation modulates the inflammatory response after strenuous exercise in obese men: A cross-over study

Effects of Vitamin D3 and Marine Omega-3 Fatty Acids Supplementation on Biomarkers of Systemic Inflammation: 4-Year Findings from the VITAL Randomized Trial

Background: The VITAL study was a nationwide, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, 2 × 2 factorial trial of vitamin D3 (2000 IU/day) and marine n-3 FAs (1 g/day) supplements. We recently reported that vitamin D supplementation with or without omega 3 fatty acids reduced autoimmune disease by 22% in the VITAL study. Objective: To investigate the effects of vitamin D3 and/or n-3 FAs on changes in systemic inflammatory biomarkers including pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines over a 4-year period in the VITAL sub-cohort with in-person evaluations at the Center for Clinical Investigations (CCI) in Boston. Design: Serum levels of four inflammatory biomarkers (high-sensitivity C-reactive protein [hs-CRP], interleukin-6, interleukin-10, and tumor necrosis factor-α) were measured in a total of 2713 samples from those 1054 VITAL/CCI participants (aged 64.9 ± 6.5 years, 49% female, 84% white, and 9% black) at baseline, year 2, and year 4 follow-up visits. Results: In multiple-adjusted models, vitamin D3 supplementation decreased serum hs-CRP levels by 19% at 2-year follow-up (nominal p = 0.007; p-value after multiple comparison adjustment = 0.028), but not at 4-year follow-up (nominal and adjusted p-values > 0.05). The effects of vitamin D3 on other inflammatory markers were not statistically significant either at year 2 or year 4 (all adjusted p-values > 0.05). Marine n-3 FAs were not significantly associated with changes of all the above inflammatory markers either at years 2 and 4, after multiple comparison adjustment (all p-values > 0.05). Conclusions: Vitamin D3 supplementation with or without n-3 FAs decreased hs-CRP by 19% at year 2, but not other inflammatory biomarkers at year 2 or year 4, while n-3 FAs with or without vitamin D3 did not significantly affect these biomarkers at either time point. Our findings support a potential role of vitamin D supplementation in modulating the chronic inflammatory process, systemic inflammation, and possibly autoimmune disease progression.

The Physiological Effect of n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (n-3 PUFAs) Intake and Exercise on Hemorheology, Microvascular Function, and Physical Performance in Health and Cardiovascular Diseases; Is There an Interaction of Exercise and Dietary n-3 PUFA Intake?

Physical activity has a beneficial effect on systemic hemodynamics, physical strength, and cardiac function in cardiovascular (CV) patients. Potential beneficial effects of dietary intake of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs), such as α-linolenic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, and docosahexaenoic acid on hemorheology, vascular function, inflammation and potential to improve physical performance as well as other CV parameters are currently investigated. Recent meta-analysis suggests no effect of n-3 PUFA supplementation on CV function and outcomes of CV diseases. On the other hand, some studies support beneficial effects of n-3 PUFAs dietary intake on CV and muscular system, as well as on immune responses in healthy and in CV patients. Furthermore, the interaction of exercise and dietary n-3 PUFA intake is understudied. Supplementation of n-3 PUFAs has been shown to have antithrombotic effects (by decreasing blood viscosity, decreasing coagulation factor and PAI-1 levels and platelet aggregation/reactivity, enhancing fibrinolysis, but without effects on erythrocyte deformability). They decrease inflammation by decreasing IL-6, MCP-1, TNFα and hsCRP levels, expression of endothelial cell adhesion molecules and significantly affect blood composition of fatty acids. Treatment with n-3 PUFAs enhances brachial artery blood flow and conductance during exercise and enhances microvascular post-occlusive hyperemic response in healthy humans, however, the effects are unknown in cardiovascular patients. Supplementation of n-3 PUFAs may improve anaerobic endurance and may modulate oxygen consumption during intense exercise, may increase metabolic capacity, enhance endurance capacity delaying the onset of fatigue, and improving muscle hypertrophy and neuromuscular function in humans and animal models. In addition, n-3 PUFAs have anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive effects and may attenuate delayed-onset muscle soreness and muscle stiffness, and preserve joint mobility. On the other hand, effects of n-3 PUFAs were variably observed in men and women and they vary depending on dietary protocol, type of supplementation and type of sports activity undertaken, both in healthy and cardiovascular patients. In this review we will discuss the physiological effects of n-3 PUFA intake and exercise on hemorheology, microvascular function, immunomodulation and inflammation and physical performance in healthy persons and in cardiovascular diseases; elucidating if there is an interaction of exercise and diet.