Dynamics of Poly(ethylene glycol)-Tethered, pH Responsive Networks

Preparation of Cross-Linked Monodisperse Poly(acrylic acid) Particles by Precipitation Polymerization

Water-soluble polymers such as poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) are widely applied in dispersants, thickeners, flocculants, and superabsorbent polymers. Here, submicrometer-sized monodisperse PAA particles were successfully prepared by precipitation polymerization in acetonitrile at 55 °C with 2,2'-azobis(2,4-dimethylvaleronitrile) as an initiator. In a medium with a high dielectric constant, the particles were stabilized by electrostatic repulsion without a colloidal stabilizer during the polymerization. Moreover, the obtained PAA particles were spontaneously cross-linked in the absence of a cross-linker. The degree of the cross-linking was strongly dependent on the amount of water (500-10,000 ppm) in the polymerization medium. The PAA particles swelled more with acrylic acid with an increase in the amount of water. Thus, in the case of high water content, the particles would become the main polymerization loci, which in turn results in the cross-linking structures owing to the α-hydrogen abstraction of PAA chains during the polymerization.

Microparticles-in-Thermoresponsive/Bioadhesive Hydrogels as a Novel Integrated Platform for Effective Intra-articular Delivery of Triamcinolone Acetonide

Intra-articular (IA) injection of thermoresponsive hydrogels coupled with microparticles (MPs) possess the benefit of sustaining the anti-inflammatory drug effect within the joint cavity for rheumatoid arthritis treatment. Star-shaped thermoresponsive poly(polyethylene glycol) methacrylate [Poly(PEGMA)] copolymers were synthesized using free radical polymerization technique and fully characterized. Triamcinolone acetonide (TA)-loaded PLA/mPEG-PDL MPs, previously optimized, were integrated into the synthesized copolymer solutions at various concentrations and tested for their gelation temperatures. The MPs-in-hydrogel formulations were characterized using scanning electron microscope (SEM), viscosity measurements, ex vivo bioadhesion, and in vitro release studies. The anti-inflammatory effect of integrated systems was assessed in adjuvant-induced monoarthritic rat knee joints and compared to Kenacort and TA-loaded MPs. Two copolymers were successfully synthesized; G-1 = poly(PEGMA₁₈₈-ME-co-PEGMA₄₇₅-ME) and G-2 = poly(PEGMA₂₄₆-EE-co-PEGMA₄₇₅-ME). Using the tube inversion technique, the gel formation was found dependent on copolymer concentration. An irreversible aggregation was obtained at copolymer concentrations ≤10% (w/v), while a gel was formed at 20 and 30% (w/v) of both copolymers upon increasing temperature. The MP-hydrogel formulations were optimized at 20 and 30% (w/v) of G-1 and G-2 with gelation temperatures of 33 and 37 °C, respectively. SEM images revealed the porous microstructures of hydrogels and their adsorption on MP surfaces. The integrated formulas showed pseudoplastic behaviors, while the bioadhesion study confirmed their bioadhesiveness on excised cartilage. The in vitro release study confirmed drug sustainment from MPs-hydrogels compared to MPs. In vivo studies proved the superiority of MP-in-hydrogels in treatment of induced arthritis, relative to Kenacort and MPs alone, suggesting the applicability of this integrated platform in IA drug delivery.

Molecular Dynamics Simulations of a Poly(ethylene glycol)-Grafted Polyamide Membrane and Its Interaction with a Calcium Alginate Gel

Molecular dynamics simulations are carried out to investigate the antifouling property of a polyethylene glycol (PEG)-grafted polyamide (PA) membrane. Our specific interest is the computational study of the interaction between a grafted PEG coating and an alginate gel foulant by a steered molecular dynamics approach. Simulation results show that the PEG coating can hold a tightly bound hydration water layer. When the alginate gel is dragged to approach the PEG coating surface, a strong repulsive hydration force is observed due to the compression of this hydration layer. Detailed calculations of the potential of mean force (PMF) show that the repulsive interaction between the alginate gel and the hydration water layer around the PEG coating has a dominant contribution to the total repulsive PMF. We have also studied the effect of the PEG coverage on the membrane-foulant interactions. We find that the alginate gel has a strong tendency to drift to the uncovered PA membrane surfaces (namely, the PEG hollows). However, direct attachment of the gel to the PA membrane surface can be avoided if the gel size is slightly larger than the PEG hollow site.

From commodity polymers to functional polymers

Functional polymers bear specified chemical groups, and have specified physical, chemical, biological, pharmacological, or other uses. To adjust the properties while keeping material usage low, a method for direct synthesis of functional polymers is indispensable. Here we show that various functional polymers can be synthesized by in situ cross-linked polymerization/copolymerization. We demonstrate that the polymers synthesized by the facile method using different functional monomers own outstanding pH-sensitivity and pH-reversibility, antifouling property, antibacterial, and anticoagulant property. Our study opens a route for the functionalization of commodity polymers, which lead to important advances in polymeric materials applications.

25th anniversary article: Rational design and applications of hydrogels in regenerative medicine

Hydrogels are hydrophilic polymer-based materials with high water content and physical characteristics that resemble the native extracellular matrix. Because of their remarkable properties, hydrogel systems are used for a wide range of biomedical applications, such as three-dimensional (3D) matrices for tissue engineering, drug-delivery vehicles, composite biomaterials, and as injectable fillers in minimally invasive surgeries. In addition, the rational design of hydrogels with controlled physical and biological properties can be used to modulate cellular functionality and tissue morphogenesis. Here, the development of advanced hydrogels with tunable physiochemical properties is highlighted, with particular emphasis on elastomeric, light-sensitive, composite, and shape-memory hydrogels. Emerging technologies developed over the past decade to control hydrogel architecture are also discussed and a number of potential applications and challenges in the utilization of hydrogels in regenerative medicine are reviewed. It is anticipated that the continued development of sophisticated hydrogels will result in clinical applications that will improve patient care and quality of life.

Structure of surfaces and interfaces of poly(N,N-dimethylacrylamide) hydrogels

We investigated the surface structure of hydrogels of poly(N,N-dimethylacrylamide) (PDMA) hydrogels synthesized and cross-linked simultaneously by redox free radical polymerization. We demonstrate the existence of a less cross-linked layer at the surface of the gel at least at two different length scales characterized by shear rheology and by neutron reflectivity, suggesting the existence of a gradient in cross-linking. The composition of the layer is shown to depend on the degree of hydrophobicity of the mold surface and is weaker for more hydrophobic molds. While the macroscopic tests proved the existence of a relatively thick under-cross-linked layer, we also demonstrated by neutron reflectivity that the gel surface at the submicrometric scale (500 nm) was also affected by the surface treatment of the mold. These results should have important implications for the measurement of macroscopic surface properties of these hydrogels such as friction or adhesion.

pH-Responsive Hydrogels with Dispersed Hydrophobic Nanoparticles for the Delivery of Hydrophobic Therapeutic Agents

To investigate the delivery of hydrophobic therapeutic agents, a new class of polymer carriers was synthesized. These carriers are composed of two components: (i) a pH-responsive hydrogel composed of methacrylic acid grafted with poly(ethylene glycol) tethers, P(MAA-g-EG), and (ii) hydrophobic poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) nanoparticles. Before the P(MAA-g-EG) hydrogel was crosslinked, PMMA nanoparticles were added to the solution and upon exposure to UV light they were photoencapsulated throughout the P(MAA-g-EG) hydrogel structure. The pH-responsive behavior of P(MAA-g-EG) is capable of triggered release of a loaded therapeutic agent, such as a low molecular weight drug or protein, when it passes from the stomach (low pH) to upper small intestine (neutral pH). The introduction of PMMA nanoparticles into the hydrogel structure affected the swelling behavior, therapeutic agent loading efficiency, and solute release profiles. In equilibrium swelling conditions the swelling ratio of nanoparticle-containing hydrogels decreased with increasing nanoparticle content. Loading efficiencies of the model therapeutic agent fluorescein ranged from 38 - 51 % and increased with increasing hydrophobic content. Release studies from neat P(MAA-g-EG) and the ensuing P(MAA-g-EG) hydrogels containing nanoparticles indicated that the transition from low pH (2.0) to neutral pH (7.0) triggered fluorescein release. Maximum fluorescein release depended on the structure and hydrophobicity of the carriers used in these studies.

Amphiphilic Interpenetrating Networks for the Delivery of Hydrophobic, Low Molecular Weight Therapeutic Agents

To investigate the delivery of hydrophobic therapeutic agents, a novel class of interpenetrating networks (IPNs) were synthesized and composed of two networks: methacrylic acid grafted with poly(ethylene glycol) tethers, P(MAA-g-EG), and poly(n-butyl acrylate) (PBA). The hydrophilic P(MAA-g-EG) networks are pH-responsive hydrogels capable of triggered release of an encapsulated therapeutic agent, such as a low molecular weight drug or a protein, when it passes from the stomach (low pH) to upper small intestine (neutral pH). PBA is a hydrophobic homopolymer that can affect the IPN swelling behavior, the therapeutic agent loading efficiencies in IPNs, and solute release profiles from IPNs. In dynamic swelling conditions, IPNs had greater swelling ratios than P(MAA-g-EG), but in equilibrium swelling conditions the IPN swelling ratio decreased with increasing PBA content. Loading efficiencies of the model therapeutic agent fluorescein ranged from 21 - 44%. Release studies from neat P(MAA-g-EG) and the ensuing IPNs indicated that the transition from low pH (2.0) to neutral pH (7.0) triggered fluorescein release. Maximum fluorescein release depended on the structure and hydrophilicity of the carriers used in these studies.

Advanced molecular design of biopolymers for transmucosal and intracellular delivery of chemotherapeutic agents and biological therapeutics

Hydrogels have been instrumental in the development of polymeric systems for controlled release of therapeutic agents. These materials are attractive for transmucosal and intracellular drug delivery because of their facile synthesis, inherent biocompatibility, tunable physicochemical properties, and capacity to respond to various physiological stimuli. In this contribution, we outline a multifaceted hydrogel-based approach for expanding the range of therapeutics in oral formulations from classical small-molecule drugs to include proteins, chemotherapeutics, and nucleic acids. Through judicious material selection and careful design of copolymer composition and molecular architecture, we can engineer systems capable of responding to distinct physiological cues, with tunable physicochemical properties that are optimized to load, protect, and deliver valuable macromolecular payloads to their intended site of action. These hydrogel carriers, including complexation hydrogels, tethered hydrogels, interpenetrating networks, nanoscale hydrogels, and hydrogels with decorated structures are investigated for their ability to respond to changes in pH, to load and release insulin and fluorescein, and remain non-toxic to Caco-2 cells. Our results suggest these novel hydrogel networks have great potential for controlled delivery of proteins, chemotherapeutics, and nucleic acids.

Synthesis and characterization of dual stimuli responsive macromers based on poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) and poly(vinylphosphonic acid)

Stimulus responsive materials hold great promise in biological applications as they can react to changes in physiological stimuli to produce a desired effect. Stimulus responsive macromers designed to respond to temperature changes at or around 37 degrees C and the presence of divalent cations were synthesized from N-isopropylacrylamide, pentaerythritol diacrylate monostearate, 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate, and vinylphosphonic acid by free radical polymerization. Monomers were incorporated into the macromers in ratios approximating the molar feed ratios, and macromers underwent thermogelation around normal body temperature (36.2-40.5 degrees C) as determined by rheology and differential scanning calorimetry. Macromers containing vinylphosphonic acid interacted with calcium ions in solution, displaying decreased sol-gel transition temperatures (27.6-34.4 degrees C in 100 mM CaCl(2)), with decreases of greater magnitude observed for macromers with higher relative vinylphosphonic acid content. Critical micellar concentrations also decreased in a dose-dependent manner with increased vinylphosphonic acid incorporation in solutions with CaCl(2) but not in solutions with NaCl. These dually responsive macromers allow examination of the effect of increasing vinylphosphonic acid content in a macromer, which holds promise in biological applications such as drug and cell delivery or tissue engineering due to the macromer responsiveness at physiological temperatures and concentrations of calcium.

Characterization of pH-responsive hydrogels of poly(itaconic acid-g-ethylene glycol) prepared by UV-initiated free radical polymerization as biomaterials for oral delivery of bioactive agents

Effective oral delivery of proteins is impeded by steep pH gradients and proteolytic enzymes in the gastrointestinal tract, as well as low absorption of the proteins into the bloodstream because of their size, charge, or solubility. In this work, pH-responsive complexation hydrogels of poly(itaconic acid) (PIA) with poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) grafts were synthesized for applications in oral drug delivery. These hydrogels were expected to be in collapsed configuration at low pH because of hydrogen bonding between PIA carboxyl groups and PEG, and to swell with increasing pH because of charge repulsion between deprotonated carboxylic acid groups. Hydrogels were prepared by UV-initiated free radical polymerization using tetraethylene glycol as the crosslinking agent and Irgacure 2959 as the initiator. The effect of monomer ratios, crosslinking ratio, and solvent amount on the properties of the hydrogels were investigated. The composition of the hydrogels was confirmed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Equilibrium swelling studies in the pH range of 1.2-7 revealed that the extent of swelling increased with increasing pH up to a pH of about 6, when no further carboxylic acid deprotonation occurred. Studies in Caco-2 colorectal carcinoma cells confirmed the cytocompatibility of these materials at concentrations of up to 5 mg/mL.

Impact of Absorption and Transport on Intelligent Therapeutics and Nano-scale Delivery of Protein Therapeutic Agents

The combination of materials design and advances in nanotechnology has led to the development of new therapeutic protein delivery systems. The pulmonary, nasal, buccal and other routes have been investigated as delivery options for protein therapy, but none result in improved patient compliances and patient quality of life as the oral route. For the oral administration of these new systems, an understanding of protein transport is essential because of the dynamic nature of the gastrointestinal tract and the barriers to transport that exist.Models have been developed to describe the transport between the gastrointestinal lumen and the bloodstream, and laboratory techniques like cell culture provide a means to investigate the absorption and transport of many therapeutic agents. Biomaterials, including stimuli-sensitive complexation hydrogels, have been investigated as promising carriers for oral delivery. However, the need to develop models that accurately predict protein blood concentration as a function of the material structure and properties still exists.