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Vogelwaid J, Bayer M, Walz M, Hampel F, Kutuzova L, Lorenz G, Kandelbauer A, Jacob T. Optimizing Epoxy Molding Compound Processing: A Multi-Sensor Approach to Enhance Material Characterization and Process Reliability. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:1540. [PMID: 38891486 PMCID: PMC11174805 DOI: 10.3390/polym16111540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2024] [Revised: 05/22/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
The in-line control of curing during the molding process significantly improves product quality and ensures the reliability of packaging materials with the required thermo-mechanical and adhesion properties. The choice of the morphological and thermo-mechanical properties of the molded material, and the accuracy of their determination through carefully selected thermo-analytical methods, play a crucial role in the qualitative prediction of trends in packaging product properties as process parameters are varied. This work aimed to verify the quality of the models and their validation using a highly filled molding resin with an identical chemical composition but 10 wt% difference in silica particles (SPs). Morphological and mechanical material properties were determined by dielectric analysis (DEA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), warpage analysis and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA). The effects of temperature and injection speed on the morphological properties were analyzed through the design of experiments (DoE) and illustrated by response surface plots. A comprehensive approach to monitor the evolution of ionic viscosity (IV), residual enthalpy (dHrest), glass transition temperature (Tg), and storage modulus (E) as a function of the transfer-mold process parameters and post-mold-cure (PMC) conditions of the material was established. The reliability of Tg estimation was tested using two methods: warpage analysis and DMA. The noticeable deterioration in the quality of the analytical signal for highly filled materials at high cure rates is discussed. Controlling the temperature by increasing the injection speed leads to the formation of a polymer network with a lower Tg and an increased storage modulus, indicating a lower density and a more heterogeneous structure due to the high heating rate and shear heating effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian Vogelwaid
- Mobility Electronics, Engineering Technology Polymer & Packaging, Robert Bosch GmbH, 72770 Reutlingen, Germany; (M.B.); (M.W.); (F.H.)
- Fakultät für Naturwissenschaften, Institut für Elektrochemie, Universität Ulm, 89081 Ulm, Germany;
| | - Martin Bayer
- Mobility Electronics, Engineering Technology Polymer & Packaging, Robert Bosch GmbH, 72770 Reutlingen, Germany; (M.B.); (M.W.); (F.H.)
| | - Michael Walz
- Mobility Electronics, Engineering Technology Polymer & Packaging, Robert Bosch GmbH, 72770 Reutlingen, Germany; (M.B.); (M.W.); (F.H.)
| | - Felix Hampel
- Mobility Electronics, Engineering Technology Polymer & Packaging, Robert Bosch GmbH, 72770 Reutlingen, Germany; (M.B.); (M.W.); (F.H.)
- Fakultät für Life Sciences, Reutlingen University, 72762 Reutlingen, Germany; (L.K.); (G.L.); (A.K.)
| | - Larysa Kutuzova
- Fakultät für Life Sciences, Reutlingen University, 72762 Reutlingen, Germany; (L.K.); (G.L.); (A.K.)
| | - Günter Lorenz
- Fakultät für Life Sciences, Reutlingen University, 72762 Reutlingen, Germany; (L.K.); (G.L.); (A.K.)
| | - Andreas Kandelbauer
- Fakultät für Life Sciences, Reutlingen University, 72762 Reutlingen, Germany; (L.K.); (G.L.); (A.K.)
- Department of Material Sciences and Process Engineering, Institute of Wood Technology and Renewable Materials, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, 1180 Vienna, Austria
| | - Timo Jacob
- Fakultät für Naturwissenschaften, Institut für Elektrochemie, Universität Ulm, 89081 Ulm, Germany;
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2
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Li Y, Zhang X, Zhang X, Zhang Y, Hou D. Recent Progress of the Vat Photopolymerization Technique in Tissue Engineering: A Brief Review of Mechanisms, Methods, Materials, and Applications. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:3940. [PMID: 37835989 PMCID: PMC10574968 DOI: 10.3390/polym15193940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Revised: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Vat photopolymerization (VP), including stereolithography (SLA), digital light processing (DLP), and volumetric printing, employs UV or visible light to solidify cell-laden photoactive bioresin contained within a vat in a point-by-point, layer-by-layer, or volumetric manner. VP-based bioprinting has garnered substantial attention in both academia and industry due to its unprecedented control over printing resolution and accuracy, as well as its rapid printing speed. It holds tremendous potential for the fabrication of tissue- and organ-like structures in the field of regenerative medicine. This review summarizes the recent progress of VP in the fields of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. First, it introduces the mechanism of photopolymerization, followed by an explanation of the printing technique and commonly used biomaterials. Furthermore, the application of VP-based bioprinting in tissue engineering was discussed. Finally, the challenges facing VP-based bioprinting are discussed, and the future trends in VP-based bioprinting are projected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Li
- College of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Xueqin Zhang
- College of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Xin Zhang
- College of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Yuxuan Zhang
- FuYang Sineva Materials Technology Co., Ltd., Beijing 100176, China
| | - Dan Hou
- Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, China National Petroleum Corporation, Beijing 102206, China
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Günay KA, Chang TL, Skillin NP, Rao VV, Macdougall LJ, Cutler AA, Silver JS, Brown TE, Zhang C, Yu CCJ, Olwin BB, Boyden ES, Anseth KS. Photo-expansion microscopy enables super-resolution imaging of cells embedded in 3D hydrogels. NATURE MATERIALS 2023; 22:777-785. [PMID: 37217701 PMCID: PMC10590656 DOI: 10.1038/s41563-023-01558-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Hydrogels are extensively used as tunable, biomimetic three-dimensional cell culture matrices, but optically deep, high-resolution images are often difficult to obtain, limiting nanoscale quantification of cell-matrix interactions and outside-in signalling. Here we present photopolymerized hydrogels for expansion microscopy that enable optical clearance and tunable ×4.6-6.7 homogeneous expansion of not only monolayer cell cultures and tissue sections, but cells embedded within hydrogels. The photopolymerized hydrogels for expansion microscopy formulation relies on a rapid photoinitiated thiol/acrylate mixed-mode polymerization that is not inhibited by oxygen and decouples monomer diffusion from polymerization, which is particularly beneficial when expanding cells embedded within hydrogels. Using this technology, we visualize human mesenchymal stem cells and their interactions with nascently deposited proteins at <120 nm resolution when cultured in proteolytically degradable synthetic polyethylene glycol hydrogels. Results support the notion that focal adhesion maturation requires cellular fibronectin deposition; nuclear deformation precedes cellular spreading; and human mesenchymal stem cells display cell-surface metalloproteinases for matrix remodelling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kemal Arda Günay
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering and the BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Tze-Ling Chang
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering and the BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Nathaniel P Skillin
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering and the BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Varsha V Rao
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering and the BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Laura J Macdougall
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering and the BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Alicia A Cutler
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Jason S Silver
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering and the BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Tobin E Brown
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering and the BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Chi Zhang
- McGovern Institute, MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA
- HHMI, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Departments of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Media Arts and Sciences, and Biological Engineering, MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Chih-Chieh Jay Yu
- McGovern Institute, MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA
- HHMI, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Departments of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Media Arts and Sciences, and Biological Engineering, MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Bradley B Olwin
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Edward S Boyden
- McGovern Institute, MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA
- HHMI, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Departments of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Media Arts and Sciences, and Biological Engineering, MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Kristi S Anseth
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering and the BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA.
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Leguizamon SC, Ahn J, Lee S, Jones BH. Tuneable phase behaviour and glass transition via polymerization-induced phase separation in crosslinked step-growth polymers. SOFT MATTER 2022; 18:4455-4463. [PMID: 35661857 DOI: 10.1039/d2sm00485b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Once limited to chain-growth polymerizations, fine control over polymerization-induced phase separation (PIPS) has recently been demonstrated in rubber-toughened thermoset materials formed through step-growth polymerizations. The domain length scales of these thermoset materials can be elegantly tuned by utilizing a binary mixture of curing agents (CAs) that individually yield disparate morphologies. Importantly, varying the composition of the binary mixture affects characteristics of the materials such as glass transition temperature and tensile behavior. Here, we establish a full phase diagram of PIPS in a rubber-toughened epoxy system tuned by a binary CA mixture to provide a robust framework of phase behaviour. X-Ray scattering in situ and post-PIPS is employed to elucidate the PIPS mechanism whereby an initial polymerization-induced compositional fluctuation causes nanoscale phase separation of rubber and epoxy components prior to local chain crosslinking and potential macrophase separation. We further demonstrate the universality of this approach by alternatively employing binary epoxy or binary rubber mixtures to achieve broad variations in morphology and glass transitions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel C Leguizamon
- Department of Organic Materials Science, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, 87185, USA.
| | - Juhong Ahn
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, 12180, USA
| | - Sangwoo Lee
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, 12180, USA
| | - Brad H Jones
- Department of Organic Materials Science, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, 87185, USA.
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Wu G, Song X, Yang Z, Li Y, Zhang H. Biodegradability of renewable waterborne polyurethane modified with vinyl-grafted gelatin by UV curing. Polym Bull (Berl) 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s00289-021-03962-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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6
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Advantage of graft architecture with a flexible main chain for implantation of ductile nature into brittle amorphous acrylic glass. POLYMER 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2021.124316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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Leguizamon SC, Powers J, Ahn J, Dickens S, Lee S, Jones BH. Polymerization-Induced Phase Separation in Rubber-Toughened Amine-Cured Epoxy Resins: Tuning Morphology from the Nano- to Macro-scale. Macromolecules 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.1c01208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Samuel C. Leguizamon
- Material, Physical, and Chemical Sciences Center, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, United States
| | - Jackson Powers
- Material, Physical, and Chemical Sciences Center, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, United States
| | - Juhong Ahn
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York 12180, United States
| | - Sara Dickens
- Material, Physical, and Chemical Sciences Center, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, United States
| | - Sangwoo Lee
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York 12180, United States
| | - Brad H. Jones
- Material, Physical, and Chemical Sciences Center, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, United States
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Alizadeh N, Celestine AN, Auad ML, Agrawal V. Mechanical characterization and modeling stress relaxation behavior of acrylic–polyurethane‐based
graft‐interpenetrating
polymer networks. POLYM ENG SCI 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/pen.25640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nima Alizadeh
- Department of Chemical Engineering Auburn University Auburn Alabama USA
- Center for Polymers and Advanced Composites Auburn University Auburn Alabama USA
| | | | - Maria L. Auad
- Department of Chemical Engineering Auburn University Auburn Alabama USA
- Center for Polymers and Advanced Composites Auburn University Auburn Alabama USA
| | - Vinamra Agrawal
- Department of Aerospace Engineering Auburn University Auburn Alabama USA
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