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Handtke S, Brömstrup L, Hain J, Fischer F, Ossowski T, Hartwig S, Dröder K. Investigation of Recycled Expanded Polyamide Beads through Artificial Ageing and Mechanical Recycling as a Proof of Concept for Circular Economy. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:1730. [PMID: 38932080 PMCID: PMC11207465 DOI: 10.3390/polym16121730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2024] [Revised: 06/04/2024] [Accepted: 06/11/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Car manufacturers are currently challenged with increasing the sustainability of their products and production to comply with sustainability requirements and legislation. One way to enhance product sustainability is by reducing the carbon footprint of fossil-based plastic parts. Particle foams are a promising solution to achieve the goal of using lightweight parts with minimal material input. Ongoing developments involve the use of expanded particle foam beads made from engineering plastics such as polyamide (EPA). To achieve this, a simulated life cycle was carried out on virgin EPA, including mechanical recycling. The virgin material was processed into specimens using a steam-free method. One series was artificially aged to replicate automotive life cycle stresses, while the other series was not. The mechanical recycling and re-foaming of the minipellets were then carried out, resulting in an EPA particle foam with 100% recycled content. Finally, the thermal and chemical material properties were comparatively analysed. The study shows that the recycled EPA beads underwent polymer degradation during the simulated life cycle, as evidenced by their material properties. For instance, the recycled beads showed a more heterogeneous molecular weight distribution (an increase in PDI from two to three), contained carbonyl groups, and exhibited an increase in the degree of crystallization from approximately 24% to 36%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sören Handtke
- Volkswagen AG, Berliner Ring 2, 38440 Wolfsburg, Germany
| | - Lena Brömstrup
- Institute of Joining and Welding, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Langer Kamp 8, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Jörg Hain
- Volkswagen AG, Berliner Ring 2, 38440 Wolfsburg, Germany
| | - Fabian Fischer
- Volkswagen AG, Berliner Ring 2, 38440 Wolfsburg, Germany
| | - Tim Ossowski
- Institute of Machine Tools and Production Technology, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Langer Kamp 19b, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Sven Hartwig
- Institute of Joining and Welding, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Langer Kamp 8, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Klaus Dröder
- Institute of Machine Tools and Production Technology, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Langer Kamp 19b, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
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Osemeahon SA, Akinterinwa A, Fasina E, Andrew FP, Shagal MH, Kareem SA, Reuben U, Onyebuchi PU, Adelagun OR, Esenowo D. Reduction of polystyrene/polyurethane plastic wastes from the environment into binders for water-resistant emulsion paints. Heliyon 2024; 10:e27868. [PMID: 38533006 PMCID: PMC10963325 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e27868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2023] [Revised: 02/08/2024] [Accepted: 03/07/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Waste management is fundamental to resource and environmental sustainability. Expanded polystyrene (EPS) and polyurethane (PU) waste plastics were recycled and applied as binder in emulsion paint formulation. The recycled polystyrene (rPS) and polyurethane (rPU) were blended into composite resins, where toluene was used as the solvent. The blends of rPS and rPU were optimized, while some physicochemical properties of the composite blends (rPS/PU) were evaluated. The results showed that the incorporation of rPU into rPS increased the viscosity (1818 mPa-3924 mPa), rate of gelation (dry-to-touch time: 15 min-0.25 min), moisture content (2.7%-8.1%), moisture uptake (3.2%-5.0%), solid content (48%-53.4%) and density (0.82 g/cm3 to 1.050.82 g/cm3) of the rPS/PU composite resins. Characterization was carried out using Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), scanning electron microscope (SEM), and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The results summarily showed that there are interactions among the rPS and rPU molecules in the composite, where complimentary structural and morphological characteristics were also achieved. The composite resin also exhibited superior bond strength (0.5-4.24 Mpa) on wood, cast mortar, ceramic, and steel surfaces due to its stronger intra- and inter-surface interactions compared to the neat rPS resin. The composite resin was used as a binder in the formulation of emulsion paint. The paint exhibited stronger resistance to water, among other superior properties, when compared to the paints formulated using neat rPS and conventional polyvinyl acetate (PVA) resins. The reduction of plastic waste in this study holds potential for the production of highly water-resistant emulsion paint for outdoor and indoor applications.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Esther Fasina
- Department of Chemistry, Modibbo Adama University, PMB 2076, Yola, Nigeria
| | - Fartisincha P. Andrew
- Department of Science Laboratory Technology, Modibbo Adama University, PMB 2076, Yola, Nigeria
| | - Muhammed H. Shagal
- Department of Chemistry, Modibbo Adama University, PMB 2076, Yola, Nigeria
| | - Semiu A. Kareem
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Modibbo Adama University, PMB 2076, Yola, Nigeria
| | - Usaku Reuben
- Department of Science Laboratory Technology, Modibbo Adama University, PMB 2076, Yola, Nigeria
| | - Patience U. Onyebuchi
- Department of Science Laboratory Technology, Modibbo Adama University, PMB 2076, Yola, Nigeria
| | | | - David Esenowo
- Department of Chemistry, Modibbo Adama University, PMB 2076, Yola, Nigeria
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Xayachak T, Haque N, Lau D, Emami N, Hood L, Tait H, Foley A, Pramanik BK. White spill: Life cycle assessment approach to managing marine EPS litter from flood-released pontoons. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 337:139400. [PMID: 37406937 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.139400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2023] [Revised: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 06/30/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023]
Abstract
Expanded polystyrene (EPS) pollution in the marine environment is a pressing issue in Queensland, Australia due to a recent flood that scattered hundreds of EPS-containing pontoons along the coastline, causing severe ecological damage. To assist in the clean-up effort and provide crucial data for developing management guidelines, this study investigates the environmental performance of different end-of-life (EoL) disposal/recycling methods, including (i) landfill; (ii) on-site mechanical re-processing using a thermal densifier (MR); and (iii) on-site dissolution/precipitation using d-limonene (DP). Applying the life cycle assessment framework, the results showed that DP was the most environmentally favourable option. Its impacts in climate change (GWP), acidification (TAP), and fossil fuel depletion (FFD) were 612 kg CO2 eq, 4.3 kg SO2 eq, and 184.7 kg oil eq, respectively. For comparison, the impacts of landfilling EPS in these categories were found to be 700 kg CO2 eq, 3.5 kg SO2 eq, and 282 kg oil eq, respectively. Landfill also contributed considerably to eutrophication potential (MEP), at 3.77 kg N eq. Impacts from MR were most significant due to the need to transport the densifier unit to the site. The analysis also revealed that the transportation of personnel and heavy machinery to the site, was the biggest contributor to impacts in the EoL stage. Its impacts in GWP, TAP, MEP, and FFD were 1369.8 kg CO2 eq, 6.5 kg SO2 eq, 0.2189 kg N eq, and 497.7 kg oil eq, respectively. Monte Carlo analysis showed that the conclusions made from these results were stable and reliable. Limitations of this model and recommendations for future investigations were also discussed in this work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tu Xayachak
- School of Engineering, RMIT University, VIC, 3001, Australia
| | - Nawshad Haque
- CSIRO Mineral Resources, Clayton South, Melbourne, VIC, 3169, Australia
| | - Deborah Lau
- CSIRO Manufacturing, Private Bag 10, Clayton South, VIC, 3169, Australia
| | - Nargessadat Emami
- CSIRO Land & Water, Black Mountain Science & Innovation Park, Acton, ACT, 2601, Australia
| | - Lincoln Hood
- Tangaroa Blue Foundation, Dunsborough, WA, 6281, Australia
| | - Heidi Tait
- Tangaroa Blue Foundation, Dunsborough, WA, 6281, Australia
| | - Alison Foley
- Ten Little Pieces, Sunshine Coast, QLD, Australia
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Upcycling Polystyrene. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14225010. [PMID: 36433142 PMCID: PMC9695542 DOI: 10.3390/polym14225010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2022] [Revised: 11/09/2022] [Accepted: 11/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Several environmental and techno-economic assessments highlighted the advantage of placing polystyrene-based materials in a circular loop, from production to waste generation to product refabrication, either following the mechanical or thermochemical routes. This review provides an assortment of promising approaches to solving the dilemma of polystyrene waste. With a focus on upcycling technologies available in the last five years, the review first gives an overview of polystyrene, its chemistry, types, forms, and varied applications. This work presents all the stages that involve polystyrene's cycle of life and the properties that make this product, in mixtures with other polymers, command a demand on the market. The features and mechanical performance of the studied materials with their associated images give an idea of the influence of recycling on the structure. Notably, technological assessments of elucidated approaches are also provided. No single approach can be mentioned as effective per se; hybrid technologies appear to possess the highest potential. Finally, this review correlates the amenability of these polystyrene upcycling methodologies to frontier technologies relating to 3D printing, human space habitation, flow chemistry, vertical farming, and green hydrogen, which may be less intuitive to many.
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Johansen MR, Christensen TB, Ramos TM, Syberg K. A review of the plastic value chain from a circular economy perspective. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2022; 302:113975. [PMID: 34700081 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.113975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2021] [Revised: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/17/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Although plastic is one of the most commonly used materials in our everyday life, the current linear economy ('produce, use and dispose') engenders high risks to human health in relation to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and environmental pollution. As a response to these challenges, the circular plastic economy is gaining momentum, where the goal is to reduce, reuse and recycle all plastic. The transition to the circular economy should be made across the entire plastics value chain in order to ensure circular design, production, use and waste management. This study examines the current scientific literature in relation to the entire value chain of plastics. This aim of the article is to provide an overview of the existing research (and highlight research gaps) associated with the transition of plastic use to a circular model. The literature was divided into the following categories: 1) design; 2) production; 3) use; 4) end-of-life; and 5) value chain. A high proportion of the literature was found to address the end-of-life phase, suggesting that the other phases are currently neglected. The results have implications that are applicable to multiple phases; in particular, contamination of waste streams and composite materials places significant limitations on the opportunity to recycle and reuse plastic in new products. This calls for changes in the whole value chain, and for trans-sectorial collaboration to ensure systemic transparency. Therefore, future research should take a holistic approach to the transition to circular through careful mapping of implications, stakeholder involvement and collaboration.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Thomas Budde Christensen
- Roskilde University, Department of Humans and Technology, Universitetsvej 1, 4000, Roskilde Denmark.
| | - Tiffany Marilou Ramos
- Roskilde University, Department of Science and Environment, Universitetsvej 1, 4000, Roskilde Denmark.
| | - Kristian Syberg
- Roskilde University, Department of Science and Environment, Universitetsvej 1, 4000, Roskilde Denmark.
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Saleem W, Nazir R, Chaudhry MN, Saleem M, Abidi SH. Packaging material-based polystyrene ZnFe2O4/clay nanocomposite: preparation, characterization and degradation studies. APPLIED NANOSCIENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s13204-021-02316-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Kol R, De Somer T, D'hooge DR, Knappich F, Ragaert K, Achilias DS, De Meester S. State-Of-The-Art Quantification of Polymer Solution Viscosity for Plastic Waste Recycling. CHEMSUSCHEM 2021; 14:4071-4102. [PMID: 34324273 PMCID: PMC8519067 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202100876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Solvent-based recycling is a promising approach for closed-loop recovery of plastic-containing waste. It avoids the energy cost to depolymerize the plastic but still allows to clean the polymer of contaminants and additives. However, viscosity plays an important role in handling the polymer solutions at high concentrations and in the cleaning steps. This Review addresses the viscosity behavior of polymer solutions, available data, and (mostly algebraic) models developed. The non-Newtonian viscosity models, such as the Carreau and Yasuda-Cohen-Armstrong models, pragmatically describe the viscosity of polymer solutions at different concentrations and shear rate ranges. This Review also describes how viscosity influences filtration and centrifugation processes, which are crucial steps in the cleaning of the polymer and includes a polystyrene/styrene case study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Kol
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE)Department of Green Chemistry and TechnologyGhent UniversityGraaf Karel De Goedelaan 58500KortrijkBelgium
- Laboratory of Polymer Chemistry and TechnologyDepartment of ChemistryAristotle University of Thessaloniki54124ThessalonikiGreece
| | - Tobias De Somer
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE)Department of Green Chemistry and TechnologyGhent UniversityGraaf Karel De Goedelaan 58500KortrijkBelgium
| | - Dagmar R. D'hooge
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT) and Centre for Textiles Science and Engineering (CTSE)Department of MaterialsTextiles and Chemical EngineeringFaculty of Engineering and ArchitectureGhent UniversityTechnologiepark 125 and 70a9052ZwijnaardeBelgium
| | - Fabian Knappich
- Process Development for Polymer RecyclingFraunhofer Institute for Process Engineering and Packaging IVVGiggenhauser Straße 3585354FreisingGermany
- Technical University of MunichTUM School of Life Sciences WeihenstephanAlte Akademie 885354FreisingGermany
| | - Kim Ragaert
- Center for Polymer & Material Technologies (CPMT)Department of MaterialsTextiles and Chemical EngineeringFaculty of Engineering & ArchitectureGhent UniversityTechnologiepark 130B-9052ZwijnaardeBelgium
| | - Dimitris S. Achilias
- Laboratory of Polymer Chemistry and TechnologyDepartment of ChemistryAristotle University of Thessaloniki54124ThessalonikiGreece
| | - Steven De Meester
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE)Department of Green Chemistry and TechnologyGhent UniversityGraaf Karel De Goedelaan 58500KortrijkBelgium
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Can Sustainable Packaging Help to Reduce Food Waste? A Status Quo Focusing Plant-Derived Polymers and Additives. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/app11115307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The promotion of sustainable packaging is part of the European Green Deal and plays a key role in the EU’s social and political strategy. One option is the use of renewable resources and biomass waste as raw materials for polymer production. Lignocellulose biomass from annual and perennial industrial crops and agricultural residues are a major source of polysaccharides, proteins, and lignin and can also be used to obtain plant-based extracts and essential oils. Therefore, these biomasses are considered as potential substitute for fossil-based resources. Here, the status quo of bio-based polymers is discussed and evaluated in terms of properties related to packaging applications such as gas and water vapor permeability as well as mechanical properties. So far, their practical use is still restricted due to lower performance in fundamental packaging functions that directly influence food quality and safety, the length of shelf life, and thus the amount of food waste. Besides bio-based polymers, this review focuses on plant extracts as active packaging agents. Incorporating extracts of herbs, flowers, trees, and their fruits is inevitable to achieve desired material properties that are capable to prolong the food shelf life. Finally, the adoption potential of packaging based on polymers from renewable resources is discussed from a bioeconomy perspective.
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Abstract
Abstract
Overuse of polymer products has led to severe environmental problems, which are threatening survival of creatures on earth. It is urgent to tackle enormous polymer wastes with proper cycling methods. Pyrolysis of polymers into high-value chemicals and fuels is displaying great potential to address the white pollution issue. In this study, we focus on chemical recycling of polystyrene, an important polymer in our everyday life, into valuable chemicals through simple pyrolysis strategy under nitrogen protection. It is found that yield of liquid product from polystyrene pyrolysis achieves as high as 76.24%, and there exists single component in the liquid product, which has been identified as styrene through hydrogen nuclear magnetic resonance spectra. Moreover, we propose monomer dissociation mechanism to explain the pyrolysis process of polystyrene based on the structure of polystyrene and experimental results.
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From Circular Economy to Circular Ecology: A Review on the Solution of Environmental Problems through Circular Waste Management Approaches. SUSTAINABILITY 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/su13020925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
(1) Background: The application of concepts linked to the circular economy (CE) has led to a sudden development of studies in numerous fields. However, the level of environmental sustainability of CE strategies could be improved and this topic deserves more attention by the scientific community. This research addresses this gap and aims at presenting a new concept, named circular ecology (CEL), and its application to the field of waste management. (2) Methods: The paper presents a literature review on the criticalities of CE and on examples of studies that implement the CEL principles. (3) Results: The review highlights that CEL principles are widely applied to several fields of waste management, showing promising opportunities to export the results to other geographical contexts. (4) Conclusions: If supported by governments, CEL approaches may allow solving multiple environmental problems at once, with clear economic, time, resources, and emission savings.
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