1
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Olazabal I, Luna Barrios EJ, De Meester S, Jehanno C, Sardon H. Overcoming the Limitations of Organocatalyzed Glycolysis of Poly(ethylene terephthalate) to Facilitate the Recycling of Complex Waste Under Mild Conditions. ACS Appl Polym Mater 2024; 6:4226-4232. [PMID: 38633816 PMCID: PMC11019730 DOI: 10.1021/acsapm.4c00326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2024] [Revised: 02/16/2024] [Accepted: 02/16/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024]
Abstract
Although multiple methods have been reported in the literature for the chemical recycling of poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), large-scale depolymerization is not yet widely employed. The main reasons for the limited adoption of chemical recycling of PET are the harsh conditions required and the lack of selectivity. In this study, the organocatalytic glycolysis of PET mediated by organic bases at low temperatures is studied, and routes to avoid the deactivation of the catalyst are explored. It is shown that the formation of terephthalic acid by uncontrolled hydrolysis leads to issues which can be resolved using potassium tert-butoxide as a cocatalyst. Finally, complex PET waste obtained from a mechanical recycling plant was depolymerized under optimized conditions, obtaining bis(2-hydroxyethyl) terephthalate yields >90% in less than 15 min at only 100 °C. These results open the way to efficient recycling of PET-enriched waste streams under milder conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ion Olazabal
- POLYMAT,
University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Joxe Mari Korta Center, Avda. Tolosa 72, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
| | - Emelin J. Luna Barrios
- POLYMAT,
University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Joxe Mari Korta Center, Avda. Tolosa 72, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
- Department
of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ghent
University, Graaf Karel
De Goedelaan 5, Kortrijk 8500, Belgium
| | - Steven De Meester
- Department
of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ghent
University, Graaf Karel
De Goedelaan 5, Kortrijk 8500, Belgium
| | - Coralie Jehanno
- POLYMAT,
University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Joxe Mari Korta Center, Avda. Tolosa 72, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
- POLYKEY, Avda. Tolosa 72, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Haritz Sardon
- POLYMAT,
University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Joxe Mari Korta Center, Avda. Tolosa 72, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
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2
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Kol R, Denolf R, Bernaert G, Manhaeghe D, Bar-Ziv E, Huber GW, Niessner N, Verswyvel M, Lemonidou A, Achilias DS, De Meester S. Increasing the Dissolution Rate of Polystyrene Waste in Solvent-Based Recycling. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 2024; 12:4619-4630. [PMID: 38516401 PMCID: PMC10952012 DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.3c08154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2023] [Revised: 02/11/2024] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024]
Abstract
Solvent-based recycling of plastic waste is a promising approach for cleaning polymer chains without breaking them. However, the time required to actually dissolve the polymer in a lab environment can take hours. Different factors play a role in polymer dissolution, including temperature, turbulence, and solvent properties. This work provides insights into bottlenecks and opportunities to increase the dissolution rate of polystyrene in solvents. The paper starts with a broad solvent screening in which the dissolution times are compared. Based on the experimental results, a multiple regression model is constructed, which shows that within several solvent properties, the viscosity of the solvent is the major contributor to the dissolution time, followed by the hydrogen, polar, and dispersion bonding (solubility) parameters. These results also indicate that cyclohexene, 2-pentanone, ethylbenzene, and methyl ethyl ketone are solvents that allow fast dissolution. Next, the dissolution kinetics of polystyrene in cyclohexene in a lab-scale reactor and a baffled reactor are investigated. The effects of temperature, particle size, impeller speed, and impeller type were studied. The results show that increased turbulence in a baffled reactor can decrease the dissolution time from 40 to 7 min compared to a lab-scale reactor, indicating the importance of a proper reactor design. The application of a first-order kinetic model confirms that dissolution in a baffled reactor is at least 5-fold faster than that in a lab-scale reactor. Finally, the dissolution kinetics of a real waste sample reveal that, in optimized conditions, full dissolution occurs after 5 min.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Kol
- Laboratory
for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry
and Technology, Ghent University, Sint-Martens-Latemlaan 2B, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
- Laboratory
of Polymer Chemistry and Technology, Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Ruben Denolf
- Laboratory
for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry
and Technology, Ghent University, Sint-Martens-Latemlaan 2B, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Gwendoline Bernaert
- Laboratory
for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry
and Technology, Ghent University, Sint-Martens-Latemlaan 2B, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Dave Manhaeghe
- Laboratory
for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry
and Technology, Ghent University, Sint-Martens-Latemlaan 2B, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Ezra Bar-Ziv
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Michigan Technological
University, Houghton, Michigan 49931, United States
| | - George W. Huber
- Department
of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
| | - Norbert Niessner
- INEOS
Styrolution GmbH, Mainzer Landstraße 50, 60325 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Michiel Verswyvel
- INEOS
Styrolution
Belgium N.V., Scheldelaan
600, 2040 Antwerpen, Belgium
| | - Angeliki Lemonidou
- Laboratory
of Petrochemical Technology, Department of Chemical Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Dimitris S. Achilias
- Laboratory
of Polymer Chemistry and Technology, Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Steven De Meester
- Laboratory
for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry
and Technology, Ghent University, Sint-Martens-Latemlaan 2B, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
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3
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Lange JP, Kersten SRA, De Meester S, van Eijk MCP, Ragaert K. Plastic recycling stripped naked - from circular product to circular industry with recycling cascade. ChemSusChem 2024:e202301320. [PMID: 38376153 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202301320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 02/21/2024]
Abstract
This perspective combines various expertise to develop and analyse the concept of technology cascade for recycling waste plastics with the goal of displacing as much fossil crude oil as possible. It thereby presents archetype recycling technologies with their strengths and weaknesses. It then combines them in various cascades to process a representative plastic mix, and determines how much (fossil) naphtha could be displaced and at which energy consumption. The cascades rely on a limited number of parameters that are fully reported in supplementary information and that were used in a simple and transparent spreadsheet model. The calculated results bust several common myths in plastic recycling, e. g. by prioritizing here recycled volume over recycling efficiency, and prioritizing circular industry over circular products . It unravels the energy cost of solvent-based recycling processes, shows the key role of gasification and the possibility to displace up to 70 % of the fossil feedstock with recycled carbon, a recycling rate that compares well with that aluminium, steel or paper. It suggests that deeper naphtha displacement would require exorbitant amount of energy. It therefore argues for the need to complement recycling with the use of renewable carbon, e. g. based on biomass, to fully defossilise the plastic industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Paul Lange
- Shell Global Solutions International B.V., Shell Technology Centre Amsterdam, Grasweg 31, 1031 HW, Amsterdam, The, Netherlands
- Department of Chemical Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Twente, Postbus 217, 7500AE, Enschede, The, Netherlands
| | - Sascha R A Kersten
- Department of Chemical Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Twente, Postbus 217, 7500AE, Enschede, The, Netherlands
| | - Steven De Meester
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering, Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, 8500, Kortrijk, Belgium
- Circular Plastics, Department of Circular Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, PO Box 616, 6200 MD, Maastricht, The, Netherlands
| | - Marcel C P van Eijk
- National Test centre Circular Plastics, Duitslanddreef 7, 8447 SE, Heerenveen, The, Netherlands
- Circular Plastics, Department of Circular Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, PO Box 616, 6200 MD, Maastricht, The, Netherlands
| | - Kim Ragaert
- Circular Plastics, Department of Circular Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, PO Box 616, 6200 MD, Maastricht, The, Netherlands
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4
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De Somer T, Nguyen Luu Minh T, Roosen M, Nachtergaele P, Manhaeghe D, Van Laere T, Schlummer M, Van Geem KM, De Meester S. Application of chemometric tools in the QSAR development of VOC removal in plastic waste recycling. Chemosphere 2024; 350:141069. [PMID: 38160949 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.141069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Revised: 12/17/2023] [Accepted: 12/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
Deodorization and, in a broader sense, the removal of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from plastic waste have become increasingly important in the field of plastic recycling, and various new decontamination techniques have been developed. Both in research and industrial practice, the selection of VOCs has been random or unsubstantiated, making it difficult to compare studies and assess decontamination processes objectively. Thus, this study proposes the use of Statistical Molecular Design (SMD) and Quantitative Structure - Activity Relationship (QSAR) as chemometric tools for the selection of representative VOCs, based on physicochemical properties. Various algorithms are used for SMD; hence, several frequently used D-Optimal Onion Design (DOOD) and Space-Filling (SF) algorithms were assessed. Hereby, it was validated that DOOD, by dividing the layers based on the equal-distance approach without so-called 'Adjacent Layer Bias', results in the most representative selection of VOCs. QSAR models that describe VOC removal by water-based washing of plastic waste as a function of molecular weight, polarizability, dipole moment and Hansen Solubility Parameters Distance were successfully established. An adjusted-R2 value of 0.77 ± 0.09 and a mean absolute error of 24.5 ± 4 % was obtained. Consequently, by measuring a representative selection of VOCs compiled using SMD, the removal of other unanalyzed VOCs was predicted on the basis of the QSAR. Another advantage of the proposed chemometric selection procedure is its flexibility. SMD allows to extend or modify the considered dataset according to the available analytical techniques, and to adjust the considered physicochemical properties according to the intended process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias De Somer
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Thien Nguyen Luu Minh
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Martijn Roosen
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Pieter Nachtergaele
- Research Group Sustainable Systems Engineering (STEN), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000, Gent, Belgium
| | - Dave Manhaeghe
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Tine Van Laere
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Martin Schlummer
- Fraunhofer-Institut für Verfahrenstechnik und Verpackung IVV, Giggenhauser Str. 35, 85354, Freising, Germany
| | - Kevin M Van Geem
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 125, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Steven De Meester
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium.
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5
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Roosen M, Tonini D, Albizzati PF, Caro D, Cristóbal J, Lase IS, Ragaert K, Dumoulin A, De Meester S. Operational Framework to Quantify "Quality of Recycling" across Different Material Types. Environ Sci Technol 2023; 57:13669-13680. [PMID: 37640371 PMCID: PMC10501198 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c03023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Revised: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
Many pledges and laws are setting recycling targets without clearly defining quality of recycling. Striving to close this gap, this study presents an operational framework to quantify quality of recycling. The framework comprises three dimensions: the Virgin Displacement Potential (VDP); In-Use Stocks Lifetime (IUSL); and Environmental Impact (EI). The VDP indicates to what extent a secondary material can be used as a substitute for virgin material; the IUSL indicates how much of a certain material is still functional in society over a given time frame, and the EI is a measure of the environmental impact of a recycling process. The three dimensions are aggregated by plotting them in a distance-to-target graph. Two example calculations are included on poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) and glass. The results indicate that the recycling of bottle and container glass collected via a deposit-refund system has the lowest distance-to-target, at 1.05, and, thus, the highest quality of recycling. For PET bottles, the highest quality of recycling is achieved in closed-loop mechanical recycling of bottles (distance to optimal quality of 0.96). Furthermore, sensitivity analysis indicates that certain parameters, e.g., the collection rate for PET bottles, can reduce the distance-to-target to 0.75 when all bottles are collected for recycling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martijn Roosen
- Laboratory
for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry
and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Sint-Martens-Latemlaan 2B, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Davide Tonini
- Directorate
B—Growth and Innovation, Unit B5—Circular Economy and
Industrial Leadership, Joint Research Centre
of the European Commission, Calle Inca Garcilaso, 41092 Seville, Spain
| | - Paola Federica Albizzati
- Directorate
D—Sustainable Resources, Unit D3—Land Resources, Joint Research Centre of the European Commission, Via E. Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra, VA, Italy
| | - Dario Caro
- Directorate
B—Growth and Innovation, Unit B5—Circular Economy and
Industrial Leadership, Joint Research Centre
of the European Commission, Calle Inca Garcilaso, 41092 Seville, Spain
| | - Jorge Cristóbal
- Directorate
D—Sustainable Resources, Unit D3—Land Resources, Joint Research Centre of the European Commission, Via E. Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra, VA, Italy
| | - Irdanto Saputra Lase
- Laboratory
for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry
and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Sint-Martens-Latemlaan 2B, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
- Directorate
B—Growth and Innovation, Unit B5—Circular Economy and
Industrial Leadership, Joint Research Centre
of the European Commission, Calle Inca Garcilaso, 41092 Seville, Spain
| | - Kim Ragaert
- Circular
Plastics, Department of Circular Chemical Engineering, Faculty of
Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, Urmonderbaan 22, 6162 AL Geleen, The Netherlands
| | - Ann Dumoulin
- Laboratory
for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry
and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Sint-Martens-Latemlaan 2B, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Steven De Meester
- Laboratory
for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry
and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Sint-Martens-Latemlaan 2B, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
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6
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Sanabria Garcia E, Huysveld S, Nhu TT, De Meester S, Dewulf J. Technical substitutability of recycled materials in life cycle Assessment: A comprehensive review and framework for quantification. Waste Manag 2023; 171:324-336. [PMID: 37699295 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2023.08.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2023] [Revised: 08/15/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/14/2023]
Abstract
In evaluating environmental sustainability with methodologies like life cycle assessment (LCA), recycling is usually credited for avoiding impacts from virgin material production. Consequently, the LCA results are influenced by the manner in which the substitutability of virgin by recycled materials is estimated. This study reviews how the scientific community assesses the technical substitutability of recycled materials in LCA. Accordingly, 49 peer-reviewed papers were in-depth analysed, considering aspects such as materials studied, type of substitution, recycled material (rMaterial) application, and life cycle stages (LCSs) where substitution was evaluated. The results show that 49% of the papers investigated material substitutability through technical and economic aspects. 51% of the articles did not consider the final application of the rMaterial. Plastics were the most studied material, and mass was the most used property to quantify technical substitutability. Certain materials were more analysed in specific LCSs (e.g., metals in the natural resource extraction stage). As 51% of the papers developed a new approach for substitutability calculation, this shows that substitutability is still a concept in development. It was noticed in 33% of the papers that substitutability values were taken from external sources, and in some cases were used without considering whether they were representative for a specific case. Aspects such as harmonization, transparency, and consideration of the application of recycled materials, therefore, require more attention in substitutability evaluation. Based on the results, a step-wise framework to measure technical substitutability at different LCSs was developed to guide researchers in including substitutability in LCA studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Estefania Sanabria Garcia
- Sustainable Systems Engineering (STEN), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Sophie Huysveld
- Sustainable Systems Engineering (STEN), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Trang T Nhu
- Sustainable Systems Engineering (STEN), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Steven De Meester
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, 13 Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Jo Dewulf
- Sustainable Systems Engineering (STEN), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
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7
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Vanleenhove B, Xu L, De Meester S, Raes K. Impact of Stabilization Technology on the Extraction Yield and Functionality of Macroconstituents from Biomass: A Systematic Review. J Agric Food Chem 2023. [PMID: 37329514 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.3c02148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Biomass contains different macroconstituents (polysaccharides, lipids, and proteins) with nutritional and functional properties. However, after harvest or processing, stabilization of biomass is necessary to preserve the macroconstituents from degradation by microbial growth and enzymatic reactions. Because these stabilization methods affect the structure of the biomass, extraction of valuable macroconstituents can be impacted. Literature, in general, focuses on either stabilization or extraction, but systematic information on the interlinkage between these processes has rarely been reported. This review summarizes recent research on physical, biological, and chemical stabilization methods on macroconstituent extraction yields and functionalities. Often, freeze drying as a stabilization method resulted in a good extraction yield and functionality, independent of the macroconstituent. Less documented treatments, such as microwave drying, infrared drying, and ultrasound stabilization, result in better yields compared to conventional physical treatments. Biological and chemical treatments were rarely performed but could be promising as stabilization methods before performing an extraction step.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baptiste Vanleenhove
- Research Unit VEG-i-TEC, Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Sint-Martens-Latemlaan 2B, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Lin Xu
- Research Unit VEG-i-TEC, Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Sint-Martens-Latemlaan 2B, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Steven De Meester
- Department of Green Chemistry, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Sint-Martens-Latemlaan 2B, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Katleen Raes
- Research Unit VEG-i-TEC, Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Sint-Martens-Latemlaan 2B, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
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8
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Abbas-Abadi MS, Kusenberg M, Zayoud A, Roosen M, Vermeire F, Madanikashani S, Kuzmanović M, Parvizi B, Kresovic U, De Meester S, Van Geem KM. Thermal pyrolysis of waste versus virgin polyolefin feedstocks: The role of pressure, temperature and waste composition. Waste Manag 2023; 165:108-118. [PMID: 37119685 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2023.04.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Revised: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Due to the complexity and diversity of polyolefinic plastic waste streams and the inherent non-selective nature of the pyrolysis chemistry, the chemical decomposition of plastic waste is still not fully understood. Accurate data of feedstock and products that also consider impurities is, in this context, quite scarce. Therefore this work focuses on the thermochemical recycling via pyrolysis of different virgin and contaminated waste-derived polyolefin feedstocks (i.e., low-density polyethylene (LDPE), polypropylene (PP) as main components), along with an investigation of the decomposition mechanisms based on the detailed composition of the pyrolysis oils. Crucial in this work is the detailed chemical analysis of the resulting pyrolysis oils by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC × GC) and ICP-OES, among others. Different feedstocks were pyrolyzed at a temperature range of 430-490 °C and at pressures between 0.1 and 2 bar in a continuous pilot-scale pyrolysis unit. At the lowest pressure, the pyrolysis oil yield of the studied polyolefins reached up to 95 wt%. The pyrolysis oil consists of primarily α-olefins (37-42 %) and n-paraffins (32-35 %) for LDPE pyrolysis, while isoolefins (mostly C9 and C15) and diolefins accounted for 84-91 % of the PP-based pyrolysis oils. The post-consumer waste feedstocks led to significantly less pyrolysis oil yields and more char formation compared to their virgin equivalents. It was found that plastic aging, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) (3 wt%), and metal contamination were the main causes of char formation during the pyrolysis of polyolefin waste (4.9 wt%).
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehrdad Seifali Abbas-Abadi
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Marvin Kusenberg
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Azd Zayoud
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Martijn Roosen
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Florence Vermeire
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Sepehr Madanikashani
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium; Materials and Process Engineering (IMAP), Institute of Mechanics, Materials and Civil Engineering (iMMC), Université catholique de Louvain - Place Sainte Barbe 2, B-1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Maja Kuzmanović
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium; College of Polymer Science and Engineering, Sichuan University (Wangjiang campus), No.24 South Section 1, Yihuan Road, Chengdu 610065, China
| | - Behzad Parvizi
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | | | - Steven De Meester
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Kevin M Van Geem
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium.
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9
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Ügdüler S, Van Laere T, De Somer T, Gusev S, Van Geem KM, Kulawig A, Leineweber R, Defoin M, Van den Bergen H, Bontinck D, De Meester S. Understanding the complexity of deinking plastic waste: An assessment of the efficiency of different treatments to remove ink resins from printed plastic film. J Hazard Mater 2023; 452:131239. [PMID: 36963193 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2023] [Revised: 03/05/2023] [Accepted: 03/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Plastic packaging is usually heavily printed with inks to provide functional benefits. However, the presence of inks strongly impedes the closed-loop recycling of plastic films. Various media have already been studied for the deinking of plastic films, but there is little scientific insight into the effectiveness of different deinking techniques. Therefore, this study aims to obtain a systematic understanding by measuring the liquefaction and maximum solubility of 14 chemically different polymer resins in seven different media typically used in plastic deinking, such as acetone, ethyl acetate, sodium hydroxide solution, cetyltrimethylammonium bromide solution, formic acid, sulfuric acid, and N,N-dimethylcyclohexylamine. Our findings show that acid-based media are able to remove a broader range of polymer resins. Organic solvents are particularly effective against acrylics and related polymer resins. The deinking efficiency tests on pure resins are also confirmed by deinking four printed plastic films containing different classes of polymer resins. A basic cost and environmental impact analysis is given to evaluate scale-up potential of the deinking medium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sibel Ügdüler
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University, Graaf Karel De Goedelaan 5, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Tine Van Laere
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University, Graaf Karel De Goedelaan 5, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Tobias De Somer
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University, Graaf Karel De Goedelaan 5, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Sergei Gusev
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University, Graaf Karel De Goedelaan 5, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Kevin M Van Geem
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles, and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 121, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Andreas Kulawig
- Siegwerk Druckfarben AG & Co KGaA, Alfred-Keller-Str. 55, 53721 Siegburg, Germany
| | - Ralf Leineweber
- Siegwerk Druckfarben AG & Co KGaA, Alfred-Keller-Str. 55, 53721 Siegburg, Germany
| | - Marc Defoin
- Bostik, Crèvecœur-sur-l'Escaut, Hauts-de-France, France
| | | | - Dirk Bontinck
- Allnex, Anderlechtstraat 33, B-1620 Drogenbos, Belgium
| | - Steven De Meester
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University, Graaf Karel De Goedelaan 5, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium.
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10
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Roosen M, Van Laere T, Decottignies V, Morel L, Schnitzler JL, Schneider J, Schlummer M, Lase IS, Dumoulin A, De Meester S. Tracing the origin of VOCs in post-consumer plastic film bales. Chemosphere 2023; 324:138281. [PMID: 36868415 PMCID: PMC10041343 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.138281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Revised: 02/22/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), including odors, are still a key issue in plastic recycling, especially in case of flexible packaging. Therefore, this study presents a detailed qualitative and quantitative VOC analysis by applying gas chromatography on 17 categories of flexible plastic packaging that are manually sorted from bales of post-consumer flexible packaging (e.g., beverage shrink wrap, packaging for frozen food, packaging for dairy products, etc.). A total of 203 VOCs are identified on packaging used for food products, while only 142 VOCs are identified on packaging used for non-food products. Especially, more oxygenated compounds (e.g., fatty acids, esters, aldehydes) are identified on food packaging. With more than 65 VOCs, the highest number of VOCs is identified on packaging used for chilled convenience food and ready meals. The total concentration of 21 selected VOCs was also higher on packaging used for food products (totally 9187 μg/kg plastic) compared to packaging used for non-food packaging (totally 3741 μg/kg plastic). Hence, advanced sorting of household plastic packaging waste, e.g., via tracer-based sorting or watermarking, could open the door towards sorting on other properties than polymer type, such as mono- versus multi-material packaging, food versus non-food packaging or even their VOC profile, which might allow for tailoring washing procedures. Potential scenarios showed that sorting the categories with the lowest VOC load, which corresponds to half of the total mass of flexible packaging, could result in a VOC reduction of 56%. By producing less contaminated plastic film fractions and by tailoring washing processes recycled plastics can ultimately be used in a broader market segment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martijn Roosen
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500, Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Tine Van Laere
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500, Kortrijk, Belgium
| | | | - Ludivine Morel
- SUEZ, CIRSEE, Rue du Président Wilson 38, 78230, Le Pecq, France
| | | | - Johannes Schneider
- Fraunhofer Institute for Process Engineering and Packaging IVV, Process Development for Polymer Recycling, Giggenhauser Straße 35, 85354, Freising, Germany
| | - Martin Schlummer
- Fraunhofer Institute for Process Engineering and Packaging IVV, Process Development for Polymer Recycling, Giggenhauser Straße 35, 85354, Freising, Germany
| | - Irdanto Saputra Lase
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500, Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Ann Dumoulin
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500, Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Steven De Meester
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500, Kortrijk, Belgium.
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11
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Bashirgonbadi A, Saputra Lase I, Delva L, Van Geem KM, De Meester S, Ragaert K. Quality evaluation and economic assessment of an improved mechanical recycling process for post-consumer flexible plastics. Waste Manag 2022; 153:41-51. [PMID: 36049271 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2022.08.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Revised: 07/06/2022] [Accepted: 08/20/2022] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Packaging represents the largest fraction of plastic waste in Europe. Currently, mechanical recycling schemes are mainly focused on the recovery of rigid packaging (like bottles), while for flexible packaging, also called films, recycling rates remain very low. Existing mechanical recycling technologies for these films are quite basic, especially in the case of complicated post-consumer flexible plastics (PCFP) waste, leading to regranulate qualities that are often subpar for renewed use in demanding film applications. In this study, the technical and economic value of an improved mechanical recycling process (additional sorting, hot washing, and improved extrusion) of PCFPs is investigated. The quality of the four types of resulting regranulates is evaluated for film and injection molding applications. The obtained Polyethylene-rich regranulates in blown films offer more flexibility (45-60%), higher ductility (27-55%), and enhanced tensile strength (5-51%), compared to the conventional mechanical recycling process. Likewise, for injection molded samples, they exhibit more flexibility (19-49%), enhanced ductility (7 to 20 times), and higher impact strength (1.8 to 3.8 times). An economic assessment is made between the obtained increased market value and the capital investment required. It is shown that the economic value can be increased by 5-38% through this improved recycling process. Overall, the study shows that it is possible to increase the mechanical recycling quality of PCFP in an economically viable way, thus opening the way for new application routes and overall increased recycling rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Bashirgonbadi
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium; Circular Plastics, Department of Circular Chemical Engineering (CCE), Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, Geleen, the Netherlands
| | - Irdanto Saputra Lase
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Campus Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Laurens Delva
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Kevin M Van Geem
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Steven De Meester
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Campus Kortrijk, Belgium; Circular Plastics, Department of Circular Chemical Engineering (CCE), Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, Geleen, the Netherlands
| | - Kim Ragaert
- Circular Plastics, Department of Circular Chemical Engineering (CCE), Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, Geleen, the Netherlands.
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12
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Lase IS, Bashirgonbadi A, van Rhijn F, Dewulf J, Ragaert K, Delva L, Roosen M, Brandsma M, Langen M, De Meester S. Material flow analysis and recycling performance of an improved mechanical recycling process for post-consumer flexible plastics. Waste Manag 2022; 153:249-263. [PMID: 36126399 PMCID: PMC9585909 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2022.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Revised: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Increasing the recycling rates for post-consumer flexible plastics (PCFP) waste is imperative as PCFP is considered a difficult-to-recycle waste with only 17 % of PCFP effectively recycled in Europe. To tackle this pressing issue, improved mechanical recycling processes are being explored to increase the recycling rates of PCFP. One interesting option is the so-called quality recycling process (QRP) proposed by CEFLEX, which supplements more conventional mechanical recycling of PCFP with additional sorting, hot washing, improved extrusion, and deodorization. Material flow analysis (MFA) model is applied to assess the performance of QRP. Four performance indicators related to quantity (process yield and net recovery) and quality (polymer grade and transparency grade) are applied to measure the performance of three PCFP mechanical recycling scenarios. The results are compared against the conventional recycling of PCFP, showing that QRP has a similar process yield (64 % - 66 %) as conventional recycling (66 %). The net recovery indicator shows that in QRP higher recovery rates are achieved for transparent-monolayer PCFP (>90 %) compared to colored-multilayer PCFP (51 % - 91 %). The quality indicators (polymer and transparency grades) demonstrate that the regranulates from QRP have better quality compared to the conventional recycling. To validate the modeling approach, the modeled compositional data is compared with experimental compositional analyses of flakes and regranulates produced by pilot recycling lines. Main conclusions are: (i) although yields do not increase significantly, extra sorting and recycling produces better regranulates' quality (ii) performing a modular MFA gives insights into future recycling scenarios and helps in decision making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irdanto Saputra Lase
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedlaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium.
| | - Amir Bashirgonbadi
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles, and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 130, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium; Circular Plastics, Department of Circular Chemical Engineering (CCE), Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, Urmonderbaan 22, 6162 Geleen, the Netherlands.
| | - Freek van Rhijn
- Nationaal Testcentrum Circulaire Plastics (NTCP), Duitslanddreef 7, 8447SE Heerenveen, the Netherlands.
| | - Jo Dewulf
- Sustainable Systems Engineering (STEN), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Kim Ragaert
- Circular Plastics, Department of Circular Chemical Engineering (CCE), Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, Urmonderbaan 22, 6162 Geleen, the Netherlands.
| | - Laurens Delva
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles, and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 130, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium.
| | - Martijn Roosen
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedlaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium.
| | - Martine Brandsma
- Nationaal Testcentrum Circulaire Plastics (NTCP), Duitslanddreef 7, 8447SE Heerenveen, the Netherlands.
| | - Michael Langen
- HTP GmbH & Co. KG, Maria-Theresia-Alle 35, 52064 Aachen, Germany.
| | - Steven De Meester
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedlaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium.
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13
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Kusenberg M, Faussone GC, Thi HD, Roosen M, Grilc M, Eschenbacher A, De Meester S, Van Geem KM. Maximizing olefin production via steam cracking of distilled pyrolysis oils from difficult-to-recycle municipal plastic waste and marine litter. Sci Total Environ 2022; 838:156092. [PMID: 35605869 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2022] [Revised: 05/04/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Plastic waste is steadily polluting oceans and environments. Even if collected, most waste is still predominantly incinerated for energy recovery at the cost of CO2. Chemical recycling can contribute to the transition towards a circular economy with pyrolysis combined with steam cracking being the favored recycling option for the time being. However, today, the high variety and contamination of real waste remains the biggest challenge. This is especially relevant for waste fractions which are difficult or even impossible to recycle mechanically such as highly mixed municipal plastic waste or marine litter. In this work, we studied the detailed composition and the steam cracking performance of distilled pyrolysis oil fractions in the naphtha-range of two highly relevant waste fractions: mixed municipal plastic waste (MPW) considered unsuitable for mechanical recycling and marine litter (ML) collected from the sea bottom. Advanced analytical techniques including comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC × GC) coupled with various detectors and inductively coupled plasma - mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) were applied to characterize the feedstocks and to understand how their properties affect the steam cracking performance. Both waste-derived naphtha fractions were rich in olefins and aromatics (~70% in MPW naphtha and ~51% in ML naphtha) next to traces of nitrogen, oxygen, chlorine and metals. ICP-MS analyses showed that sodium, potassium, silicon and iron were the most crucial metals that should be removed in further upgrading steps. Steam cracking of the waste-derived naphtha fractions resulted in lower light olefin yields compared to fossil naphtha used as benchmark, due to secondary reactions of aromatics and olefins. Coke formation of ML naphtha was slightly increased compared to fossil naphtha (+ ~50%), while that of MPW naphtha was more than ~180% higher. It was concluded that mild upgrading of the waste-derived naphtha fractions or dilution with fossil feedstocks is sufficient to provide feedstocks suitable for industrial steam cracking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marvin Kusenberg
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Gian Claudio Faussone
- University of Nova Gorica, Vipavska 13, SI-5000 Nova Gorica, Slovenia; Sintol, Corso Matteotti 32A, Torino, Italy
| | - Hang Dao Thi
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Martijn Roosen
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Miha Grilc
- University of Nova Gorica, Vipavska 13, SI-5000 Nova Gorica, Slovenia; Department of Catalysis and Chemical Reaction Engineering, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, 1001 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Andreas Eschenbacher
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Steven De Meester
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Kevin M Van Geem
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium.
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14
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Kol R, Nachtergaele P, De Somer T, D’hooge DR, Achilias DS, De Meester S. Toward More Universal Prediction of Polymer Solution Viscosity for Solvent-Based Recycling. Ind Eng Chem Res 2022; 61:10999-11011. [PMID: 35941852 PMCID: PMC9354514 DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.2c01487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Revised: 06/27/2022] [Accepted: 07/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
![]()
The viscosity of polymer solutions is important for both
polymer
synthesis and recycling. Polymerization reactions can become hampered
by diffusional limitations once a viscosity threshold is reached,
and viscous solutions complicate the cleaning steps during the dissolution–precipitation
technique. Available experimental data is limited, which is more severe
for green solvents, justifying dedicated viscosity data recording
and interpretation. In this work, a systematic study is therefore
performed on the viscosity of polystyrene solutions, considering different
concentrations, temperatures, and conventional and green solvents.
The results show that for the shear rate range of 1–1000 s–1, the solutions with concentrations between 5 and
39 wt % display mainly Newtonian behavior, which is further confirmed
by the applicability of the segment-based Eyring-NRTL and Eyring-mNRF
models. Moreover, multivariate data analysis successfully predicts
the viscosity of polystyrene solutions under different conditions.
This approach will facilitate future data recording for other polymer–solvent
combinations while minimizing experimental effort.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Kol
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University, Graaf Karel De Goedelaan 5, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
- Laboratory of Polymer Chemistry and Technology, Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Pieter Nachtergaele
- Research Group STEN, Department of Green Chemistry & Technology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Tobias De Somer
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University, Graaf Karel De Goedelaan 5, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Dagmar R. D’hooge
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT) and Centre for Textiles Science and Engineering (CTSE), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 125 and 70a, 9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Dimitris S. Achilias
- Laboratory of Polymer Chemistry and Technology, Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Steven De Meester
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University, Graaf Karel De Goedelaan 5, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
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15
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Tonini D, Albizzati PF, Caro D, De Meester S, Garbarino E, Blengini GA. Quality of recycling: Urgent and undefined. Waste Manag 2022; 146:11-19. [PMID: 35533544 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2022.04.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2022] [Revised: 04/25/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Quality of recycling is a concept used by many authors in the scientific literature and the EU legislator. However, a clear definition of what is intended for quality of recycling and a framework for operationalising it is lacking. Most studies, while proposing indicators reflecting quality, leave the concept of quality largely undefined. Such lack of clarity is an obstacle to the conception of robust policies addressing recycling and circular economy. In this article, we review the available studies investigating on recycling quality, synthetize the approaches available and conclude suggesting a way forward for research to operationalise the definition to support circular economy policy measures and monitoring. Essentially, quality is not an on/off criterion. The definition of quality of recycling should consider that quality depends on technical characteristics of the recyclate, which determine if it is adequate (thus functional) for a certain end application or not. Furthermore, it should consider that the recyclate can be used in different end applications over different markets and that can be adequate for substitution of primary resources in certain applications, but less or not in others. At system-wide level, this results in a certain degree of virgin resource substitution. To this end, preserving functionality, i.e. minimising the recyclate loss of functions via functional recycling, is key. Drawing upon studies on waste management, life cycle assessment and resource dissipation, we link the concept of functionality to substitutability of virgin resources and broader suitability in the circular economy, striving to show the linkages between different perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Tonini
- Joint Research Centre of the European Commission, Calle Inca Garcilaso, 41092 Seville, Spain.
| | | | - Dario Caro
- Joint Research Centre of the European Commission, Calle Inca Garcilaso, 41092 Seville, Spain
| | - Steven De Meester
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering, Ghent University, Sint-Martens-Latemlaan 2B, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Elena Garbarino
- European Defence Agency, Rue des Drapiers, 17-23, B-1050 Ixelles, Belgium
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16
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Phan K, Den Broeck EV, Raes K, De Clerck K, Speybroeck VV, De Meester S. A comparative theoretical study on the solvent dependency of anthocyanin extraction profiles. J Mol Liq 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2022.118606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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17
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Jehanno C, Alty JW, Roosen M, De Meester S, Dove AP, Chen EYX, Leibfarth FA, Sardon H. Critical advances and future opportunities in upcycling commodity polymers. Nature 2022; 603:803-814. [PMID: 35354997 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-021-04350-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 91.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The vast majority of commodity plastics do not degrade and therefore they permanently pollute the environment. At present, less than 20% of post-consumer plastic waste in developed countries is recycled, predominately for energy recovery or repurposing as lower-value materials by mechanical recycling. Chemical recycling offers an opportunity to revert plastics back to monomers for repolymerization to virgin materials without altering the properties of the material or the economic value of the polymer. For plastic waste that is either cost prohibitive or infeasible to mechanically or chemically recycle, the nascent field of chemical upcycling promises to use chemical or engineering approaches to place plastic waste at the beginning of a new value chain. Here state-of-the-art methods are highlighted for upcycling plastic waste into value-added performance materials, fine chemicals and specialty polymers. By identifying common conceptual approaches, we critically discuss how the advantages and challenges of each approach contribute to the goal of realizing a sustainable plastics economy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Coralie Jehanno
- POLYMAT, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Donostia-San Sebastian, Spain.,POLYKEY, Donostia-San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Jill W Alty
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Martijn Roosen
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering, Ghent University, Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Steven De Meester
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering, Ghent University, Kortrijk, Belgium.
| | - Andrew P Dove
- School of Chemistry, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Eugene Y-X Chen
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Frank A Leibfarth
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
| | - Haritz Sardon
- POLYMAT, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Donostia-San Sebastian, Spain.
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18
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Kusenberg M, Roosen M, Zayoud A, Djokic MR, Dao Thi H, De Meester S, Ragaert K, Kresovic U, Van Geem KM. Assessing the feasibility of chemical recycling via steam cracking of untreated plastic waste pyrolysis oils: Feedstock impurities, product yields and coke formation. Waste Manag 2022; 141:104-114. [PMID: 35101750 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2022.01.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Revised: 01/05/2022] [Accepted: 01/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Chemical recycling of plastic waste to base chemicals via pyrolysis and subsequent steam cracking of pyrolysis oils shows great potential to overcome the limitations in present means of plastic waste recycling. In this scenario, the largest concern is the feasibility. Are plastic waste pyrolysis products acceptable steam cracking feedstocks in terms of composition, product yields and coke formation? In this work, steam cracking of two post-consumer plastic waste pyrolysis oils blended with fossil naphtha was performed in a continuous bench-scale unit without prior treatment. Product yields and radiant coil coke formation were benchmarked to fossil naphtha as an industrial feedstock. Additionally, the plastic waste pyrolysis oils were thoroughly characterized. Analyses included two dimensional gas chromatography coupled to a flame ionization detector for the detailed hydrocarbon composition as well as specific analyses for heteroatoms, halogens and metals. It was found that both pyrolysis oils are rich in olefins (∼48 wt%) and that the main impurities are nitrogen, oxygen, chlorine, bromine, aluminum, calcium and sodium. Steam cracking of the plastic waste derived feedstocks led to ethylene yields of ∼23 wt% at a coil outlet temperature of 820 °C and ∼28 wt% at 850 °C, exceeding the ethylene yield of pure naphtha at both conditions (∼22 wt% and ∼27 wt%, respectively). High amounts of heavy products were formed when steam cracking both pyrolysis oils, respectively. Furthermore, a substantial coking tendency was observed for the more contaminated pyrolysis oil, indicating that next to unsaturated hydrocarbons, contaminants are a strong driver for coke formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marvin Kusenberg
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Martijn Roosen
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Azd Zayoud
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Marko R Djokic
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Hang Dao Thi
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Steven De Meester
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Kim Ragaert
- Center for Polymer and Material Technologies (CPMT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | | | - Kevin M Van Geem
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium.
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19
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Roosen M, Harinck L, Ügdüler S, De Somer T, Hucks AG, Belé TGA, Buettner A, Ragaert K, Van Geem KM, Dumoulin A, De Meester S. Deodorization of post-consumer plastic waste fractions: A comparison of different washing media. Sci Total Environ 2022; 812:152467. [PMID: 34952061 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Revised: 11/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
An important impediment to the acceptance of recyclates into a broader market is their unwanted odor after reprocessing. Different types of washing procedures are already in place, but fundamental insights into the deodorization efficiencies of different washing media are still relatively scarce. Therefore, in this study, the deodorization efficiencies of different types of plastics after washing with different media were determined via gas chromatography and mass spectrometry analysis. A total of 169 compounds subdivided into various chemical classes, such as alkanes, terpenes, and oxygenated compounds, were detected across all packaging types. Around 60 compounds were detected on plastic bottles, and around 40 were detected on trays and films. Owing to the differences in physicochemical properties of odor compounds, different deodorization efficiencies were obtained with different washing media. Water and caustic soda were significantly more efficient for poly(ethylene terephthalate) bottles with deodorization efficiencies up to 80%, whereas for polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene bottles, the washing media were relatively inefficient (around 30-40%). Adding a detergent or an organic solvent could increase deodorization efficiencies by up to 70-90% for these packaging types. A similar trend was observed for PE films having deodorization efficiencies in the range of 40-50% when washing with water or caustic soda and around 70-80% when a detergent was added. Polystyrene trays were most effectively deodorized with a detergent, achieving efficiencies up to 67%. Hence, this study shows that optimal washing processes should be tailored to specific packaging types to further improve deodorization and to eventually be able to meet ambitious European recycling targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martijn Roosen
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Lies Harinck
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Sibel Ügdüler
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium; Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 125, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Tobias De Somer
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium; Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 125, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Amaury-Gauvain Hucks
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Tiago G A Belé
- Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Chair of Aroma and Smell Research, Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Henkestraße 9, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Andrea Buettner
- Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Chair of Aroma and Smell Research, Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Henkestraße 9, 91054 Erlangen, Germany; Fraunhofer Institute for Process Engineering and Packaging IVV, Giggenhauser Straße 35, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Kim Ragaert
- Center for Polymer and Material Technologies (CPMT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 130, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Kevin M Van Geem
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 125, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Ann Dumoulin
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Steven De Meester
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium.
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20
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Kusenberg M, Eschenbacher A, Djokic MR, Zayoud A, Ragaert K, De Meester S, Van Geem KM. Opportunities and challenges for the application of post-consumer plastic waste pyrolysis oils as steam cracker feedstocks: To decontaminate or not to decontaminate? Waste Manag 2022; 138:83-115. [PMID: 34871884 PMCID: PMC8769047 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2021.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Revised: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/07/2021] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Thermochemical recycling of plastic waste to base chemicals via pyrolysis followed by a minimal amount of upgrading and steam cracking is expected to be the dominant chemical recycling technology in the coming decade. However, there are substantial safety and operational risks when using plastic waste pyrolysis oils instead of conventional fossil-based feedstocks. This is due to the fact that plastic waste pyrolysis oils contain a vast amount of contaminants which are the main drivers for corrosion, fouling and downstream catalyst poisoning in industrial steam cracking plants. Contaminants are therefore crucial to evaluate the steam cracking feasibility of these alternative feedstocks. Indeed, current plastic waste pyrolysis oils exceed typical feedstock specifications for numerous known contaminants, e.g. nitrogen (∼1650 vs. 100 ppm max.), oxygen (∼1250 vs. 100 ppm max.), chlorine (∼1460vs. 3 ppm max.), iron (∼33 vs. 0.001 ppm max.), sodium (∼0.8 vs. 0.125 ppm max.)and calcium (∼17vs. 0.5 ppm max.). Pyrolysis oils produced from post-consumer plastic waste can only meet the current specifications set for industrial steam cracker feedstocks if they are upgraded, with hydrogen based technologies being the most effective, in combination with an effective pre-treatment of the plastic waste such as dehalogenation. Moreover, steam crackers are reliant on a stable and predictable feedstock quality and quantity representing a challenge with plastic waste being largely influenced by consumer behavior, seasonal changes and local sorting efficiencies. Nevertheless, with standardization of sorting plants this is expected to become less problematic in the coming decade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marvin Kusenberg
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Andreas Eschenbacher
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Marko R Djokic
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Azd Zayoud
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Kim Ragaert
- Center for Polymer and Material Technologies (CPMT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Steven De Meester
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Kevin M Van Geem
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
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21
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Ügdüler S, De Somer T, Van Geem KM, Roosen M, Kulawig A, Leineweber R, De Meester S. Towards a Better Understanding of Delamination of Multilayer Flexible Packaging Films by Carboxylic Acids. ChemSusChem 2021; 14:4198-4213. [PMID: 33492767 PMCID: PMC8518906 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202002877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Recycling multilayer plastic packaging is challenging due to its intrinsic compositional heterogeneity. A promising route to increase recycling rates for these materials is delamination, which allows recycling the polymers separately. Yet, this process is not well understood on a fundamental level. This study aimed to obtain first principles-based insights of the delamination mechanism of multilayer flexible packaging film (MFPF) with carboxylic acids. Delamination of MFPFs was described through a model based on Fick's first law of diffusion and first-order dissolution kinetics of polyurethane adhesives. The model was experimentally tested on 5 different MFPFs at different temperatures (50-75 °C), formic acid concentrations (50-100 vol %), and solid/liquid (S/L) ratios (0.005, 0.025, and 0.12 g mL-1 ). Under the studied conditions the model proved to successfully estimate the delamination time of MFPF with the average Theil's Inequality Coefficient (TIC) value of 0.14. Essential for scaling-up delamination processes is the possibility to use high S/L ratios as the solubility of the adhesive is rarely limiting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sibel Ügdüler
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE)Department of Green Chemistry and TechnologyGhent UniversityGraaf Karel De Goedelaan 58500KortrijkBelgium
| | - Tobias De Somer
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE)Department of Green Chemistry and TechnologyGhent UniversityGraaf Karel De Goedelaan 58500KortrijkBelgium
| | - Kevin M. Van Geem
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of MaterialsTextiles and Chemical EngineeringFaculty of Engineering & ArchitectureGhent UniversityTechnologiepark 1219052ZwijnaardeBelgium
| | - Martijn Roosen
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE)Department of Green Chemistry and TechnologyGhent UniversityGraaf Karel De Goedelaan 58500KortrijkBelgium
| | - Andreas Kulawig
- Siegwerk Druckfarben AG & Co KGaAAlfred-Keller-Str. 5553721SiegburgGermany
| | - Ralf Leineweber
- Siegwerk Druckfarben AG & Co KGaAAlfred-Keller-Str. 5553721SiegburgGermany
| | - Steven De Meester
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE)Department of Green Chemistry and TechnologyGhent UniversityGraaf Karel De Goedelaan 58500KortrijkBelgium
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22
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Kol R, De Somer T, D'hooge DR, Knappich F, Ragaert K, Achilias DS, De Meester S. State-Of-The-Art Quantification of Polymer Solution Viscosity for Plastic Waste Recycling. ChemSusChem 2021; 14:4071-4102. [PMID: 34324273 PMCID: PMC8519067 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202100876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Solvent-based recycling is a promising approach for closed-loop recovery of plastic-containing waste. It avoids the energy cost to depolymerize the plastic but still allows to clean the polymer of contaminants and additives. However, viscosity plays an important role in handling the polymer solutions at high concentrations and in the cleaning steps. This Review addresses the viscosity behavior of polymer solutions, available data, and (mostly algebraic) models developed. The non-Newtonian viscosity models, such as the Carreau and Yasuda-Cohen-Armstrong models, pragmatically describe the viscosity of polymer solutions at different concentrations and shear rate ranges. This Review also describes how viscosity influences filtration and centrifugation processes, which are crucial steps in the cleaning of the polymer and includes a polystyrene/styrene case study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Kol
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE)Department of Green Chemistry and TechnologyGhent UniversityGraaf Karel De Goedelaan 58500KortrijkBelgium
- Laboratory of Polymer Chemistry and TechnologyDepartment of ChemistryAristotle University of Thessaloniki54124ThessalonikiGreece
| | - Tobias De Somer
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE)Department of Green Chemistry and TechnologyGhent UniversityGraaf Karel De Goedelaan 58500KortrijkBelgium
| | - Dagmar R. D'hooge
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT) and Centre for Textiles Science and Engineering (CTSE)Department of MaterialsTextiles and Chemical EngineeringFaculty of Engineering and ArchitectureGhent UniversityTechnologiepark 125 and 70a9052ZwijnaardeBelgium
| | - Fabian Knappich
- Process Development for Polymer RecyclingFraunhofer Institute for Process Engineering and Packaging IVVGiggenhauser Straße 3585354FreisingGermany
- Technical University of MunichTUM School of Life Sciences WeihenstephanAlte Akademie 885354FreisingGermany
| | - Kim Ragaert
- Center for Polymer & Material Technologies (CPMT)Department of MaterialsTextiles and Chemical EngineeringFaculty of Engineering & ArchitectureGhent UniversityTechnologiepark 130B-9052ZwijnaardeBelgium
| | - Dimitris S. Achilias
- Laboratory of Polymer Chemistry and TechnologyDepartment of ChemistryAristotle University of Thessaloniki54124ThessalonikiGreece
| | - Steven De Meester
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE)Department of Green Chemistry and TechnologyGhent UniversityGraaf Karel De Goedelaan 58500KortrijkBelgium
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23
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Kleinhans K, Demets R, Dewulf J, Ragaert K, De Meester S. Non-household end-use plastics: the ‘forgotten’ plastics for the circular economy. Curr Opin Chem Eng 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.coche.2021.100680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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24
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Phan K, De Meester S, Raes K, De Clerck K, Van Speybroeck V. A Comparative Study on the Photophysical Properties of Anthocyanins and Pyranoanthocyanins. Chemistry 2021; 27:5956-5971. [PMID: 33453093 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202004639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2020] [Revised: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Anthocyanins and pyranoanthocyanins are flavonoids that are present in various food products (e.g., fruit, vegetables, wine, etc.). The large chemical diversity amongst these molecules leads to compound-specific properties such as color and stability towards external conditions. These properties are also attractive for food and non-food applications. The photophysical experimental characterization is not easy as this generally demands advanced analytical techniques along with optimized separation procedures. Molecular modeling can provide insights into the fundamental understanding of the photophysical properties of these compounds in a uniform way for a broad set of compounds. However, the current literature is quite fragmented on this topic. Herein, a large set of 140 naturally derived anthocyanins was evaluated in a systematic way with three functionals (B3LYP, PBE0, and CAM-B3LYP). The accuracy of these functionals was determined with experimental literature λmax,vis values. In addition to λmax,vis values, time-dependent (TD)-DFT calculations also provided oscillator strengths, molar absorption coefficients, and orbital energies, which define whether specific natural anthocyanin-based compounds can be deployed in food and non-food applications such as food additives/colorants, textile dyeing, analytical standards, and dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs).
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim Phan
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University, Campus Kortrijk, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, 8500, Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Steven De Meester
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University, Campus Kortrijk, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, 8500, Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Katleen Raes
- Research Unit VEG-i-TEC, Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Ghent University Campus Kortrijk, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, 8500, Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Karen De Clerck
- Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering (MaTCh), Ghent University, Technologiepark 70A, 9052, Zwijnaarde, Belgium
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25
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Roosen M, De Somer T, Demets R, Ügdüler S, Meesseman V, Van Gorp B, Ragaert K, Van Geem KM, Walgraeve C, Dumoulin A, De Meester S. Towards a better understanding of odor removal from post-consumer plastic film waste: A kinetic study on deodorization efficiencies with different washing media. Waste Manag 2021; 120:564-575. [PMID: 33139193 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2020.10.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Revised: 10/12/2020] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Mechanical recycling is to date the most commonly applied recycling technology. However, mechanical recycling of post-consumer plastics still faces many challenges, such as the presence of odorous constituents. Accordingly, recycling industry is looking for cost-effective solutions to improve the current washing efficiencies. However, scientific literature and basic understanding of deodorization processes are still scarce, which impedes efficient industrial optimization. Therefore, this study aims to obtain more fundamental insights in the deodorization mechanisms of plastic films in different washing media such as water, detergent, caustic soda, and ethyl acetate as organic solvent. The removal efficiencies of 19 odor components with a wide range of physicochemical properties were quantified via GC-MS analysis. The results revealed that deodorization depends on various factors such as temperature and physicochemical properties as polarity, volatility, and molecular weight of the odor components and the washing media. It was shown that polar washing media are less efficient compared to apolar media or media containing a detergent, achieving efficiencies of around 50% and 90%, respectively. The desorption processes can be accurately modeled by the isotherm model of Fritz-Schlunder in combination with a reversible first order kinetic model for the deodorization kinetics. Aspen Plus® process simulations of a water-based washing process reveal that at least 60% fresh water is needed to avoid saturation of the medium and undesired (re-)adsorption of odor components onto the plastics, which results in a substantial ecological footprint.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martijn Roosen
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Tobias De Somer
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium; Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 125, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Ruben Demets
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium; Center for Polymer and Material Technologies (CPMT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 130, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Sibel Ügdüler
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Valérie Meesseman
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium; Pharmaceutical and Biological Laboratory Technology, Hogeschool West-Vlaanderen (HOWEST), Rijselstraat 5, B-8200 Brugge, Belgium
| | - Bart Van Gorp
- ECO-oh!, Europark 1075, B-3530 Houthalen-Helchteren, Belgium
| | - Kim Ragaert
- Center for Polymer and Material Technologies (CPMT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 130, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Kevin M Van Geem
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 125, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Christophe Walgraeve
- Environmental Organic Chemistry and Technology (EnVOC), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Ann Dumoulin
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Steven De Meester
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium.
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26
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Kleinhans K, Hallemans M, Huysveld S, Thomassen G, Ragaert K, Van Geem KM, Roosen M, Mys N, Dewulf J, De Meester S. Development and application of a predictive modelling approach for household packaging waste flows in sorting facilities. Waste Manag 2021; 120:290-302. [PMID: 33333467 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2020.11.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2020] [Revised: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/29/2020] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Household packaging waste sorting facilities consist of complex networks of processes to separate diverse waste streams. These facilities are a key first step to re-enter materials into the recycling chain. However, so far there are no general methods to predict the performance of such sorting facilities, i.e. how efficiently the heterogeneous packaging waste is sorted into fractions with value for further recycling. In this paper, a model of the material flow in a sorting facility is presented, which allows changing the incoming waste composition, split factors on the sorting units as well as the setup of the sorting facility. The performance of the sorting facility is judged based on the purity of the output material (grade) and the recovery of the input material. A validation of the model was performed via a case study on Belgian post-consumer packaging waste with a selection of typical waste items that can be found in this stream. Moreover, the model was used to predict the possible sorting qualities of future Belgian post-consumer packaging waste after an extension of the allowed waste packaging items in the waste stream. Finally, a sensitivity analysis was performed on the split factors, which are a key data source in the model. Overall, the developed model is flexible and able to predict the performance of packaging waste sorting facilities as well as support waste management and design for recycling decisions, including future design of packaging, to ensure proper sorting and separation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerstin Kleinhans
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium; Sustainable Systems Engineering (STEN), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; Center for Polymer and Material Technologies (CPMT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 130, 9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Michelle Hallemans
- Sustainable Systems Engineering (STEN), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Sophie Huysveld
- Sustainable Systems Engineering (STEN), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Gwenny Thomassen
- Sustainable Systems Engineering (STEN), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; Environmental Economics, Department of Engineering Management, Faculty of Business and Economics, University of Antwerp, Prinsstraat 13, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Kim Ragaert
- Center for Polymer and Material Technologies (CPMT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 130, 9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Kevin M Van Geem
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering (MaTCh), Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 125, 9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Martijn Roosen
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Nicolas Mys
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium; Center for Polymer and Material Technologies (CPMT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 130, 9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Jo Dewulf
- Sustainable Systems Engineering (STEN), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Steven De Meester
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium.
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27
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De Tandt E, Demuytere C, Van Asbroeck E, Moerman H, Mys N, Vyncke G, Delva L, Vermeulen A, Ragaert P, De Meester S, Ragaert K. A recycler's perspective on the implications of REACH and food contact material (FCM) regulations for the mechanical recycling of FCM plastics. Waste Manag 2021; 119:315-329. [PMID: 33125940 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2020.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2020] [Revised: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This manuscript provides an overview of the legislative requirements for the use of mechanical recycled plastics in articles placed on the EU market, as seen from the perspective of a plastics recycler. The first part reviews the main principles included in the overarching legislation on Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restrictions of Chemicals (REACH) and to what extent these are applicable for mechanical recyclers of plastics. The interactions between REACH and the Waste Framework Directive (WFD) is discussed, as well as the difficulties for recyclers to comply with certain REACH requirements. In a second part, the focus is moved to the use of recycled plastics as Food Contact Material (FCM). The scope of the different applicable EU FCM regulations is inventorised as well as the key legislative principles involved. A final section is dedicated to the discussion on the authorisation of recycling processes under the FCM regulation and the practical challenges involved for the effective introduction of FCMs containing recycled plastics. Altogether it could be concluded that the complexity of the different legal perspectives, a lack of communication and transparency within the plastic value chain together with technical challenges related to recycling processes have been hindering the effective uptake of recycled plastic FCM (with the exception for bottle PET). The development of targeted solutions across the entire value-chain, taking into account different perspectives in terms of legislation and health protection, economic growth and technical innovations, will be crucial in achieving a circular economy for plastics, including recycled plastics for FCM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen De Tandt
- CAPTURE - Centre for Polymer and Material Technologies, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 130, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Cody Demuytere
- CAPTURE - Centre for Polymer and Material Technologies, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 130, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | | | - Hiram Moerman
- Apeiron-Team NV, Berten Pilstraat, 4, 2640 Mortsel, Belgium
| | - Nicolas Mys
- CAPTURE - Centre for Polymer and Material Technologies, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 130, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; CAPTURE - Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University - Campus Kortrijk, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Gianni Vyncke
- CAPTURE - Centre for Polymer and Material Technologies, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 130, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Laurens Delva
- CAPTURE - Centre for Polymer and Material Technologies, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 130, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - An Vermeulen
- Pack4Food NPO, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Peter Ragaert
- CAPTURE - Department of Food Technology, Safety & Health, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Campus Coupure, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; Pack4Food NPO, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Steven De Meester
- CAPTURE - Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University - Campus Kortrijk, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Kim Ragaert
- CAPTURE - Centre for Polymer and Material Technologies, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 130, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
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Khan O, Daddi T, Slabbinck H, Kleinhans K, Vazquez-Brust D, De Meester S. Assessing the determinants of intentions and behaviors of organizations towards a circular economy for plastics. Resour Conserv Recycl 2020; 163:105069. [PMID: 32834488 PMCID: PMC7395241 DOI: 10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.105069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Revised: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
The production and consumption of plastics, although inevitable in our modern life, are predominantly unsustainable and inefficient. Hence, the concept of a circular economy for plastics has been proposed as a sustainable approach to thrive both economy and our modern life. To implement a circular economy for plastics, an understanding of both individuals' and organizations' behaviors is needed since psychological effects often undermine technical solutions. We particularly focus on organizations' behaviors since commercial plastic waste has not been thoroughly investigated compared to household plastic waste. Using the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM), we assess the determinants of intentions and behaviors of 637 organizations in Belgium towards a circular economy for plastics. Our PLS-SEM analysis support that attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control of decision makers positively influence organizations' intentions to implement best practices of plastic recycling. Furthermore, organizations' intentions, perceived behavioral control, pressures, and enablers positively, whereas barriers negatively, influence organizations' behaviors. Our study shows that most organizations have positive intentions, yet they seem to be failing in implementing best practices of plastic recycling due to some critical barriers. To overcome this intention-behavior gap and to attain a circular economy for plastics, our study suggests some measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Owais Khan
- Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, block B, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- EMbeDS - Institute of Management, Scuola Superiore Sant'Anna, Piazza Martiri della Libertà, 33, 56127 Pisa, Italy
| | - Tiberio Daddi
- EMbeDS - Institute of Management, Scuola Superiore Sant'Anna, Piazza Martiri della Libertà, 33, 56127 Pisa, Italy
| | - Hendrik Slabbinck
- Department of Marketing, Innovation, and Organization, Ghent University, Tweekerkenstraat 2, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Kerstin Kleinhans
- Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, block B, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Diego Vazquez-Brust
- Portsmouth Business School, University of Portsmouth, Richmond Building, Portland Street, Portsmouth, P01 3DE, United Kingdom
| | - Steven De Meester
- Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, block B, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
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Roosen M, Mys N, Kusenberg M, Billen P, Dumoulin A, Dewulf J, Van Geem KM, Ragaert K, De Meester S. Detailed Analysis of the Composition of Selected Plastic Packaging Waste Products and Its Implications for Mechanical and Thermochemical Recycling. Environ Sci Technol 2020; 54:13282-13293. [PMID: 32985869 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c03371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Plastic packaging typically consists of a mixture of polymers and contains a whole range of components, such as paper, organic residue, halogens, and metals, which pose problems during recycling. Nevertheless, until today, limited detailed data are available on the full polymer composition of plastic packaging waste taking into account the separable packaging parts present in a certain waste stream, nor on their quantitative levels of (elemental) impurities. This paper therefore presents an unprecedented in-depth analysis of the polymer and elemental composition, including C, H, N, S, O, metals, and halogens, of commonly generated plastic packaging waste streams in European sorting facilities. Various analytical techniques are applied, including Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), polarized optical microscopy, ion chromatography, and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES), on more than 100 different plastic packaging products, which are all separated into their different packaging subcomponents (e.g., a bottle into the bottle itself, the cap, and the label). Our results show that certain waste streams consist of mixtures of up to nine different polymers and contain various elements of the periodic table, in particular metals such as Ca, Al, Na, Zn, and Fe and halogens like Cl and F, occurring in concentrations between 1 and 3000 ppm. As discussed in the paper, both polymer and elemental impurities impede in many cases closed-loop recycling and require advanced pretreatment steps, increasing the overall recycling cost.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martijn Roosen
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Nicolas Mys
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
- Center for Polymer and Material Technologies (CPMT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 130, Zwijnaarde, B-9052, Belgium
| | - Marvin Kusenberg
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 125, Zwijnaarde, B-9052, Belgium
| | - Pieter Billen
- Intelligence in Processes, Advanced Catalysts & Solvents (iPRACS), Faculty of Applied Engineering, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, B-2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Ann Dumoulin
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Jo Dewulf
- Sustainable Systems Engineering (STEN), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Kevin M Van Geem
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 125, Zwijnaarde, B-9052, Belgium
| | - Kim Ragaert
- Center for Polymer and Material Technologies (CPMT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 130, Zwijnaarde, B-9052, Belgium
| | - Steven De Meester
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
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Van Melkebeke M, Janssen C, De Meester S. Characteristics and Sinking Behavior of Typical Microplastics Including the Potential Effect of Biofouling: Implications for Remediation. Environ Sci Technol 2020; 54:8668-8680. [PMID: 32551546 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b07378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Microplastics are ubiquitous pollutants within the marine environment, predominantly (>90%) accumulating in sediments worldwide. Despite the increasing global concern regarding these anthropogenic pollutants, research into the remediation of microplastics is lacking. Here, we examine those characteristics of microplastics that are essential to adequately evaluate potential remediation techniques such as sedimentation and (air) flotation techniques. We analyzed the sinking behavior of typical microplastics originating from real plastic waste samples and identified the best-available drag model to quantitatively describe their sinking behavior. Particle shape is confirmed to be an important parameter strongly affecting the sinking behavior of microplastics. Various common shape descriptors were experimentally evaluated on their ability to appropriately characterize frequently occurring particle shapes of typical microplastics such as spheres, films, and fibers. This study is the first in this field to include film particles in its experimental design, which were found to make up a considerable fraction of marine pollution and are shown to significantly affect the evaluation of shape-dependent drag models. Circularity χ and sphericity Φ are found to be appropriate shape descriptors in this context. We also investigated the effect of biofouling on the polarity of marine plastics and estimated its potential contribution to the settling motion of initially floating microplastics based on density-modification. It is found that biofouling alters the polarity of plastics significantly; this is from (near) hydrophobic (i.e., water contact angles from 70 to 100°) to strong hydrophilic (i.e., water contact angles from 30 to 40°) surfaces, rendering them more difficult to separate from sediment based on polarity as a primary separation factor. Thus, besides providing a better understanding of the fate and behavior of typical marine microplastics, these findings serve as a fundamental stepping-stone to the development of the first large-scale sediment remediation technique for microplastics to address the global microplastic accumulation issue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michiel Van Melkebeke
- Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Aquatic Ecology, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Colin Janssen
- Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Aquatic Ecology, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Steven De Meester
- Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
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Nachtergaele P, Thybaut J, De Meester S, Drijvers D, Saeys W, Dewulf J. Multivariate Analysis of Industrial Biorefinery Processes: Strategy for Improved Process Understanding with Case Studies in Fatty Acid Production. Ind Eng Chem Res 2020. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.0c00515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pieter Nachtergaele
- Research Group STEN, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Oleon NV, Assenedestraat 2, B-9940 Evergem, Belgium
| | - Joris Thybaut
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology, Ghent University, Technologiepark 125, B-9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Steven De Meester
- Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | | | - Wouter Saeys
- Department of Biosystems, KU Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 30, B-3001, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jo Dewulf
- Research Group STEN, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
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Ügdüler S, Van Geem KM, Roosen M, Delbeke EIP, De Meester S. Challenges and opportunities of solvent-based additive extraction methods for plastic recycling. Waste Manag 2020; 104:148-182. [PMID: 31978833 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2020.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Revised: 12/17/2019] [Accepted: 01/05/2020] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Additives are ubiquitously used in plastics to improve their functionality. However, they are not always desirable in their 'second life' and are a major bottleneck for chemical recycling. Although research on extraction techniques for efficient removal of additives is increasing, it resembles much like uncharted territory due to the broad variety of additives, plastics and removal techniques. Today solvent-based additive extraction techniques, solid-liquid extraction and dissolution-precipitation, are considered to be the most promising techniques to remove additives. This review focuses on the assessment of these techniques by making a link between literature and physicochemical principles such as diffusion and Hansen solubility theory. From a technical point of view, dissolution-precipitation is preferred to remove a broad spectrum of additives because diffusion limitations affect the solid-liquid extraction recoveries. Novel techniques such as accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) are promising for finding the balance between these two processes. Because of limited studies on the economic and environmental feasibility of extraction methods, this review also includes a basic economic and environmental assessment of two extreme cases for the extraction of additives. According to this assessment, the feasibility of additives removal depends strongly on the type of additive and plastic and also on the extraction conditions. In the best-case scenario at least 70% of solvent recovery is required to extract plasticizers from polyvinyl chloride (PVC) via dissolution-precipitation with tetrahydrofuran (THF), while solid-liquid extraction of phenolic antioxidants and a fatty acid amide slip agents from polypropylene (PP) with dichloromethane (DCM) can be economically viable even without intensive solvent recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sibel Ügdüler
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering, Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel De Goedelaan 5, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Kevin M Van Geem
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology, Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 914, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Martijn Roosen
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering, Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel De Goedelaan 5, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Elisabeth I P Delbeke
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology, Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 914, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Steven De Meester
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering, Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel De Goedelaan 5, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium.
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Préat N, Taelman SE, De Meester S, Allais F, Dewulf J. Identification of microalgae biorefinery scenarios and development of mass and energy balance flowsheets. ALGAL RES 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2019.101737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Brouwer M, Picuno C, Thoden van Velzen EU, Kuchta K, De Meester S, Ragaert K. The impact of collection portfolio expansion on key performance indicators of the Dutch recycling system for Post-Consumer Plastic Packaging Waste, a comparison between 2014 and 2017. Waste Manag 2019; 100:112-121. [PMID: 31536921 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2019.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2018] [Revised: 08/30/2019] [Accepted: 09/09/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The recycling network of post-consumer plastic packaging waste (PCPPW) was studied for the Netherlands in 2017 with material flow analysis (MFA) and data reconciliation techniques. In comparison to the previous MFA of the PCPPW recycling network in 2014, the predominant change is the expansion of the collection portfolio from only plastic packages to plastic packages, beverage cartons and metal objects. The analysis shows that the amounts of recycled plastics products (as main washed milled goods) increased from 75 to 103 Gg net and the average polymeric purity of the recycled products remained nearly constant. Furthermore, the rise in the amounts of recycled products was accompanied with a rise in the total amount of rejected materials at cross docking facilities and sorting residues at the sorting facilities. This total amount grew from 19 Gg in 2014 to 70 Gg gross in 2017 and is over-proportional to the rise in recycled products. Hence, there is a clear trade-off between the growth in recycled plastics produced and the growth in rejects and residues. Additionally, since the polymeric purity of the recycled plastics did not significantly improve during the last years, most of the recycled plastics from PCPPW are still only suited for open-loop recycling. Although this recycling system for PCPPW is relatively advanced in Europe, it cannot be considered circular, since the net recycling yield is only 26 ± 2% and the average polymeric purity of the recycled plastics is 90 ± 7%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marieke Brouwer
- Top Institute Food & Nutrition, Nieuwe Kanaal 9A, 6709 PA Wageningen, the Netherlands; Wageningen Food & Biobased Research, Bornse Weilanden 9, 6709 WG Wageningen, the Netherlands.
| | - Caterina Picuno
- Hamburg University of Technology, Institute of Environmental Technology and Energy Economics, Waste Resources Management, Harburger Schlossstr. 36, 21079 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Eggo U Thoden van Velzen
- Top Institute Food & Nutrition, Nieuwe Kanaal 9A, 6709 PA Wageningen, the Netherlands; Wageningen Food & Biobased Research, Bornse Weilanden 9, 6709 WG Wageningen, the Netherlands.
| | - Kerstin Kuchta
- Hamburg University of Technology, Institute of Environmental Technology and Energy Economics, Waste Resources Management, Harburger Schlossstr. 36, 21079 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Steven De Meester
- Ghent University, Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Graaf Karel De Goedelaan 5, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Kim Ragaert
- Centre for Polymer and Material Technologies, Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Ghent University, Technologiepark 915, 9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
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Renteria Gamiz AG, Dewulf J, De Soete W, Heirman B, Dahlin P, Jurisch C, Krebser U, De Meester S. Freeze drying in the biopharmaceutical industry: An environmental sustainability assessment. Food and Bioproducts Processing 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fbp.2019.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Préat N, De Troch M, van Leeuwen S, Taelman SE, De Meester S, Allais F, Dewulf J. Development of potential yield loss indicators to assess the effect of seaweed farming on fish landings. ALGAL RES 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2018.08.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Boone L, Van Linden V, Roldán-Ruiz I, Sierra CA, Vandecasteele B, Sleutel S, De Meester S, Muylle H, Dewulf J. Introduction of a natural resource balance indicator to assess soil organic carbon management: Agricultural Biomass Productivity Benefit. J Environ Manage 2018; 224:202-214. [PMID: 30053732 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2017] [Revised: 06/01/2018] [Accepted: 07/05/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The rising demand for feed and food has put an increasing pressure on agriculture, with agricultural intensification as a direct response. Notwithstanding the higher crop productivity, intensive agriculture management entails many adverse environmental impacts. Worldwide, soil organic carbon (SOC) decline is hereby considered as a main danger which affects soil fertility and productivity. The life cycle perspective helps to get a holistic overview when evaluating the environmental sustainability of agricultural systems, though the impact of farm management on soil quality aspects is often not integrated. In this paper, we introduce an indicator called Agricultural Biomass Productivity Benefit of SOC management (ABB_SOC), which, relying on natural resource consumption, enables to estimate the net effect of the efforts made to attain a better soil quality. Hereby the focus is put on SOC. First, we introduce a framework to describe the SOC trend due to farm management decisions. The extent to which remediation measures are required are used as a measure for the induced SOC losses. Next, ABB_SOC values are calculated as the balance between the natural resource consumption of the inputs (including remediation efforts) and the desired output of arable crop production systems. The models RothC and EU-Rotate_N are used to simulate the SOC evolution due to farm management and the response of the biomass productivity, respectively. The developed indicator is applied on several rotation systems in Flanders, comparing different remediation strategies. The indicator could be used as a base for a method to account for soil quality in life cycle analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lieselot Boone
- Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000, Gent, Belgium; Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Burgemeester Van Gansberghelaan 92, 9820, Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Veerle Van Linden
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Burgemeester Van Gansberghelaan 92, 9820, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Isabel Roldán-Ruiz
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Burgemeester Van Gansberghelaan 92, 9820, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Carlos A Sierra
- Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry, Hans-Knöll-Str. 10, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Bart Vandecasteele
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Burgemeester Van Gansberghelaan 92, 9820, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Steven Sleutel
- Department of Environment, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000, Gent, Belgium
| | - Steven De Meester
- Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University - Campus Kortrijk, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, 8500, Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Hilde Muylle
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Burgemeester Van Gansberghelaan 92, 9820, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Jo Dewulf
- Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000, Gent, Belgium
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Brouwer MT, Thoden van Velzen EU, Augustinus A, Soethoudt H, De Meester S, Ragaert K. Predictive model for the Dutch post-consumer plastic packaging recycling system and implications for the circular economy. Waste Manag 2018; 71:62-85. [PMID: 29107509 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2017.10.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2017] [Revised: 10/12/2017] [Accepted: 10/22/2017] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The Dutch post-consumer plastic packaging recycling network has been described in detail (both on the level of packaging types and of materials) from the household potential to the polymeric composition of the recycled milled goods. The compositional analyses of 173 different samples of post-consumer plastic packaging from different locations in the network were combined to indicatively describe the complete network with material flow analysis, data reconciliation techniques and process technological parameters. The derived potential of post-consumer plastic packages in the Netherlands in 2014 amounted to 341 Gg net (or 20.2 kg net.cap-1.a-1). The complete recycling network produced 75.2 Gg milled goods, 28.1 Gg side products and 16.7 Gg process waste. Hence the net recycling chain yield for post-consumer plastic packages equalled 30%. The end-of-life fates for 35 different plastic packaging types were resolved. Additionally, the polymeric compositions of the milled goods and the recovered masses were derived with this model. These compositions were compared with experimentally determined polymeric compositions of recycled milled goods, which confirmed that the model predicts these compositions reasonably well. Also the modelled recovered masses corresponded reasonably well with those measured experimentally. The model clarified the origin of polymeric contaminants in recycled plastics, either sorting faults or packaging components, which gives directions for future improvement measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marieke T Brouwer
- Wageningen Food & Biobased Research, Post-box 17, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands; Top Institute Food & Nutrition, Wageningen, The Netherlands; Wageningen Food & Biobased Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Eggo U Thoden van Velzen
- Top Institute Food & Nutrition, Wageningen, The Netherlands; Wageningen Food & Biobased Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Antje Augustinus
- Top Institute Food & Nutrition, Wageningen, The Netherlands; Wageningen Food & Biobased Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Han Soethoudt
- Wageningen Food & Biobased Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Steven De Meester
- Department of Industrial Biological Sciences, Ghent University, Belgium
| | - Kim Ragaert
- Centre for Polymer & Material Technologies, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, Belgium
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Sfez S, De Meester S, Dewulf J. Co-digestion of rice straw and cow dung to supply cooking fuel and fertilizers in rural India: Impact on human health, resource flows and climate change. Sci Total Environ 2017; 609:1600-1615. [PMID: 28810512 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.07.150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2017] [Revised: 07/14/2017] [Accepted: 07/17/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Anaerobic digestion of cow dung with new feedstock such as crop residues to increase the biogas potential is an option to help overcoming several issues faced by India. Anaerobic digestion provides biogas that can replace biomass cooking fuels and reduce indoor air pollution. It also provides digestate, a fertilizer that can contribute to compensate nutrient shortage on agricultural land. Moreover, it avoids the burning of rice straw in the fields which contributes to air pollution in India and climate change globally. Not only the technical and economical feasibility but also the environmental sustainability of such systems needs to be assessed. The potential effects of implementing community digesters co-digesting cow dung and rice straw on carbon and nutrients flows, human health, resource efficiency and climate change are analyzed by conducting a Substance Flow Analysis and a Life Cycle Assessment. The implementation of the technology is considered at the level of the state of Chhattisgarh. Implementing this scenario reduces the dependency of the rural community to nitrogen and phosphorus from synthetic fertilizers only by 0.1 and 1.6%, respectively, but the dependency of farmers to potassium from synthetic fertilizers by 31%. The prospective scenario returns more organic carbon to agricultural land and thus has a potential positive effect on soil quality. The implementation of the prospective scenario can reduce the health impact of the local population by 48%, increase the resource efficiency of the system by 60% and lower the impact on climate change by 13%. This study highlights the large potential of anaerobic digestion to overcome the aforementioned issues faced by India. It demonstrates the need to couple local and global assessments and to conduct analyses at the substance level to assess the sustainability of such systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Sfez
- Department of Sustainable Organic Chemistry and Technology (EnVOC), Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University - Campus Coupure, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Steven De Meester
- Department of Industrial Biological Sciences, Laboratory of Industrial Water and Ecotechnology (LIWET), Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University - Campus Kortrijk, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium.
| | - Jo Dewulf
- Department of Sustainable Organic Chemistry and Technology (EnVOC), Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University - Campus Coupure, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium.
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Boone L, Van Linden V, De Meester S, Vandecasteele B, Muylle H, Roldán-Ruiz I, Nemecek T, Dewulf J. Environmental life cycle assessment of grain maize production: An analysis of factors causing variability. Sci Total Environ 2016; 553:551-564. [PMID: 26938318 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.02.089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2015] [Revised: 02/12/2016] [Accepted: 02/12/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
To meet the growing demand, high yielding, but environmentally sustainable agricultural plant production systems are desired. Today, life cycle assessment (LCA) is increasingly used to assess the environmental impact of these agricultural systems. However, the impact results are very diverse due to management decisions or local natural conditions. The impact of grain maize is often generalized and an average is taken. Therefore, we studied variation in production systems. Four types of drivers for variability are distinguished: policy, farm management, year-to-year weather variation and innovation. For each driver, scenarios are elaborated using ReCiPe and CEENE (Cumulative Exergy Extraction from the Natural Environment) to assess the environmental footprint. Policy limits fertilisation levels in a soil-specific way. The resource consumption is lower for non-sandy soils than for sandy soils, but entails however more eutrophication. Farm management seems to have less influence on the environmental impact when considering the CEENE only. But farm management choices such as fertiliser type have a large effect on emission-related problems (e.g. eutrophication and acidification). In contrast, year-to-year weather variation results in large differences in the environmental footprint. The difference in impact results between favourable and poor environmental conditions amounts to 19% and 17% in terms of resources and emissions respectively, and irrigation clearly is an unfavourable environmental process. The best environmental performance is obtained by innovation as plant breeding results in a steadily increasing yield over 25 years. Finally, a comparison is made between grain maize production in Flanders and a generically applied dataset, based on Swiss practices. These very different results endorse the importance of using local data to conduct LCA of plant production systems. The results of this study show decision makers and farmers how they can improve the environmental performance of agricultural systems, and LCA practitioners are alerted to challenges due to variation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lieselot Boone
- Research Group EnVOC, Department of Sustainable Organic Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, Gent B-9000, Belgium; Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Burgemeester Van Gansberghelaan 92, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Veerle Van Linden
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Burgemeester Van Gansberghelaan 92, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Steven De Meester
- Research Group EnVOC, Department of Sustainable Organic Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, Gent B-9000, Belgium
| | - Bart Vandecasteele
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Burgemeester Van Gansberghelaan 92, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Hilde Muylle
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Burgemeester Van Gansberghelaan 92, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Isabel Roldán-Ruiz
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Burgemeester Van Gansberghelaan 92, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Thomas Nemecek
- Agroscope, Institute for Sustainability Sciences, LCA Group, Reckenholzstrasse 191, 8046 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jo Dewulf
- Research Group EnVOC, Department of Sustainable Organic Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, Gent B-9000, Belgium.
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Taelman SE, Schaubroeck T, De Meester S, Boone L, Dewulf J. Accounting for land use in life cycle assessment: The value of NPP as a proxy indicator to assess land use impacts on ecosystems. Sci Total Environ 2016; 550:143-156. [PMID: 26808405 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.01.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2015] [Revised: 01/11/2016] [Accepted: 01/11/2016] [Indexed: 04/13/2023]
Abstract
Terrestrial land and its resources are finite, though, for economic and socio-cultural needs of humans, these natural resources are further exploited. It highlights the need to quantify the impact humans possibly have on the environment due to occupation and transformation of land. As a starting point of this paper (1(st) objective), the land use activities, which may be mainly socio-culturally or economically oriented, are identified in addition to the natural land-based processes and stocks and funds that can be altered due to land use. To quantify the possible impact anthropogenic land use can have on the natural environment, linked to a certain product or service, life cycle assessment (LCA) is a tool commonly used. During the last decades, many indicators are developed within the LCA framework in an attempt to evaluate certain environmental impacts of land use. A second objective of this study is to briefly review these indicators and to categorize them according to whether they assess a change in the asset of natural resources for production and consumption or a disturbance of certain ecosystem processes, i.e. ecosystem health. Based on these findings, two enhanced proxy indicators are proposed (3(rd) objective). Both indicators use net primary production (NPP) loss (potential NPP in the absence of humans minus remaining NPP after land use) as a relevant proxy to primarily assess the impact of land use on ecosystem health. As there are two approaches to account for the natural and productive value of the NPP remaining after land use, namely the Human Appropriation of NPP (HANPP) and hemeroby (or naturalness) concepts, two indicators are introduced and the advantages and limitations compared to state-of-the-art NPP-based land use indicators are discussed. Exergy-based spatially differentiated characterization factors (CFs) are calculated for several types of land use (e.g., pasture land, urban land).
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Affiliation(s)
- Sue Ellen Taelman
- Department of Sustainable Organic Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Thomas Schaubroeck
- Department of Sustainable Organic Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Steven De Meester
- Department of Sustainable Organic Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Lieselot Boone
- Department of Sustainable Organic Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium; Institute for Agriculture and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Burgemeester Van Gansberghelaan 92, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Jo Dewulf
- Department of Sustainable Organic Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium; European Commission - Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability (IES), Via E. Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra, Italy
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Debaveye S, De Soete W, De Meester S, Vandijck D, Heirman B, Kavanagh S, Dewulf J. Human health benefits and burdens of a pharmaceutical treatment: Discussion of a conceptual integrated approach. Environ Res 2016; 144:19-31. [PMID: 26544901 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2015.10.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2015] [Revised: 09/22/2015] [Accepted: 10/24/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The effects of a pharmaceutical treatment have until now been evaluated by the field of Health Economics on the patient health benefits, expressed in Quality-Adjusted Life Years (QALYs) versus the monetary costs. However, there is also a Human Health burden associated with this process, resulting from emissions that originate from the pharmaceutical production processes, Use Phase and End of Life (EoL) disposal of the medicine. This Human Health burden is evaluated by the research field of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and expressed in Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs), a metric similar to the QALY. The need for a new framework presents itself in which both the positive and negative health effects of a pharmaceutical treatment are integrated into a net Human Health effect. To do so, this article reviews the methodologies of both Health Economics and the area of protection Human Health of the LCA methodology and proposes a conceptual framework on which to base an integration of both health effects. Methodological issues such as the inclusion of future costs and benefits, discounting and age weighting are discussed. It is suggested to use the structure of an LCA as a backbone to cover all methodological challenges involved in the integration. The possibility of monetizing both Human Health benefits and burdens is explored. The suggested approach covers the main methodological aspects that should be considered in an integrated assessment of the health effects of a pharmaceutical treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam Debaveye
- Research Group Environmental Organic Chemistry and Technology (EnVOC), Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, Ghent B-9000, Belgium.
| | - Wouter De Soete
- Research Group Environmental Organic Chemistry and Technology (EnVOC), Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, Ghent B-9000, Belgium; European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability (IES), Via Enrico Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra, Italy
| | - Steven De Meester
- Research Group Environmental Organic Chemistry and Technology (EnVOC), Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, Ghent B-9000, Belgium
| | - Dominique Vandijck
- Interfaculty Centre for Health Economic Research, Ghent University, De Pintelaan 185, Ghent B-9000, Belgium
| | - Bert Heirman
- Johnson & Johnson EHS&S, Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, Turnhoutseweg 30, Beerse B-2340, Belgium
| | - Shane Kavanagh
- Johnson & Johnson Health Economics, Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, Turnhoutseweg 30, Beerse B-2340, Belgium
| | - Jo Dewulf
- Research Group Environmental Organic Chemistry and Technology (EnVOC), Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, Ghent B-9000, Belgium; European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability (IES), Via Enrico Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra, Italy
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Laner D, Rechberger H, De Soete W, De Meester S, Astrup TF. Resource recovery from residual household waste: An application of exergy flow analysis and exergetic life cycle assessment. Waste Manag 2015; 46:653-667. [PMID: 26384560 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2015.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2015] [Revised: 08/19/2015] [Accepted: 09/04/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Exergy is based on the Second Law of thermodynamics and can be used to express physical and chemical potential and provides a unified measure for resource accounting. In this study, exergy analysis was applied to four residual household waste management scenarios with focus on the achieved resource recovery efficiencies. The calculated exergy efficiencies were used to compare the scenarios and to evaluate the applicability of exergy-based measures for expressing resource quality and for optimizing resource recovery. Exergy efficiencies were determined based on two approaches: (i) exergy flow analysis of the waste treatment system under investigation and (ii) exergetic life cycle assessment (LCA) using the Cumulative Exergy Extraction from the Natural Environment (CEENE) as a method for resource accounting. Scenario efficiencies of around 17-27% were found based on the exergy flow analysis (higher efficiencies were associated with high levels of material recycling), while the scenario efficiencies based on the exergetic LCA lay in a narrow range around 14%. Metal recovery was beneficial in both types of analyses, but had more influence on the overall efficiency in the exergetic LCA approach, as avoided burdens associated with primary metal production were much more important than the exergy content of the recovered metals. On the other hand, plastic recovery was highly beneficial in the exergy flow analysis, but rather insignificant in exergetic LCA. The two approaches thereby offered different quantitative results as well as conclusions regarding material recovery. With respect to resource quality, the main challenge for the exergy flow analysis is the use of exergy content and exergy losses as a proxy for resource quality and resource losses, as exergy content is not per se correlated with the functionality of a material. In addition, the definition of appropriate waste system boundaries is critical for the exergy efficiencies derived from the flow analysis, as it is constrained by limited information available about the composition of flows in the system as well as about secondary production processes and their interaction with primary or traditional production chains. In the exergetic LCA, resource quality could be reflected by the savings achieved by product substitution and the consideration of the waste's upstream burden allowed for an evaluation of the waste's resource potential. For a comprehensive assessment of resource efficiency in waste LCA, the sensitivity of accounting for product substitution should be carefully analyzed and cumulative exergy consumption measures should be complimented by other impact categories.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Laner
- Institute for Water Quality, Resource and Waste Management, Vienna University of Technology, Karlsplatz 13, 1040 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Helmut Rechberger
- Institute for Water Quality, Resource and Waste Management, Vienna University of Technology, Karlsplatz 13, 1040 Vienna, Austria
| | - Wouter De Soete
- Research Group Environmental Chemistry and Technology (ENVOC), Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Steven De Meester
- Research Group Environmental Chemistry and Technology (ENVOC), Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Thomas F Astrup
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Building 115, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
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Taelman SE, Champenois J, Edwards MD, De Meester S, Dewulf J. Comparative environmental life cycle assessment of two seaweed cultivation systems in North West Europe with a focus on quantifying sea surface occupation. ALGAL RES 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2015.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Sfez S, Van Den Hende S, Taelman SE, De Meester S, Dewulf J. Environmental sustainability assessment of a microalgae raceway pond treating aquaculture wastewater: From up-scaling to system integration. Bioresour Technol 2015; 190:321-331. [PMID: 25965258 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2015.04.088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2015] [Revised: 04/23/2015] [Accepted: 04/24/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The environmental sustainability of aquaculture wastewater treatment by microalgal bacterial flocs (MaB-flocs) in an outdoor raceway pond was analyzed using life cycle assessment. Pikeperch aquaculture wastewater treated at pilot scale (Belgium; 28m(2)) and industrial scale (hypothetical up-scaling; 41 ponds of 245m(2)) were compared. The integration of the MaB-floc raceway pond in a broader aquaculture waste treatment system was studied, comparing the valorisation of MaB-flocs as shrimp feed and as biogas. Up-scaling improves the resource footprint of the plant (848MJex,CEENEkg(-1) MaB-floc TSS at pilot scale and 277MJex,CEENEkg(-1) MaB-floc TSS at industrial scale) as well as its carbon footprint and eutrophication potential. At industrial scale, the valorisation of MaB-flocs as shrimp feed is overall more sustainable than as biogas but improvements should be made to reduce the energy use of the MaB-floc raceway pond, especially by improving the energy-efficiency of the pond stirring system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Sfez
- Department of Sustainable Organic Chemistry and Technology (EnVOC), Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Sofie Van Den Hende
- Laboratory for Industrial Water and Eco-Technology (LIWET), Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium.
| | - Sue Ellen Taelman
- Department of Sustainable Organic Chemistry and Technology (EnVOC), Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Steven De Meester
- Department of Sustainable Organic Chemistry and Technology (EnVOC), Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Jo Dewulf
- Department of Sustainable Organic Chemistry and Technology (EnVOC), Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium.
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De Soete W, Debaveye S, De Meester S, Van der Vorst G, Aelterman W, Heirman B, Cappuyns P, Dewulf J. Environmental sustainability assessments of pharmaceuticals: an emerging need for simplification in life cycle assessments. Environ Sci Technol 2014; 48:12247-12255. [PMID: 25244162 DOI: 10.1021/es502562d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The pharmaceutical and fine chemical industries are eager to strive toward innovative products and technologies. This study first derives hotspots in resource consumption of 2839 Basic Operations in 40 Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient synthesis steps through Exergetic Life Cycle Assessment (ELCA). Second, since companies are increasingly obliged to quantify the environmental sustainability of their products, two alternative ways of simplifying (E)LCA are discussed. The usage of averaged product group values (R(2) = 3.40 × 10(-30)) is compared with multiple linear regression models (R(2) = 8.66 × 10(-01)) in order to estimate resource consumption of synthesis steps. An optimal set of predictor variables is postulated to balance model complexity and embedded information with usability and capability of merging models with existing Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) data systems. The amount of organic solvents used, molar efficiency, and duration of a synthesis step were shown to be the most significant predictor variables. Including additional predictor variables did not contribute to the predictive power and eventually weakens the model interpretation. Ideally, an organization should be able to derive its environmental impact from readily available ERP data, linking supply chains back to the cradle of resource extraction, excluding the need for an approximation with product group averages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wouter De Soete
- Research Group Environmental Organic Chemistry and Technology (ENVOC), Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University , Coupure Links 653, Ghent B-9000, Belgium
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De Meester S, Demeyer J, Velghe F, Peene A, Van Langenhove H, Dewulf J. The environmental sustainability of anaerobic digestion as a biomass valorization technology. Bioresour Technol 2012; 121:396-403. [PMID: 22864176 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2012.06.109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2012] [Revised: 06/29/2012] [Accepted: 06/29/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
This paper studies the environmental sustainability of anaerobic digestion from three perspectives. First, reference electricity is compared to electricity production from domestic organic waste and energy crop digestion. Second, different digester feed possibilities in an agricultural context are studied. Third, the influence of applying digestate as fertilizer is investigated. Results highlight that biomass is converted at a rational exergy (energy) efficiency ranging from 15.3% (22.6) to 33.3% (36.0). From a life cycle perspective, a saving of over 90% resources is achieved in most categories when comparing biobased electricity to conventional electricity. However, operation without heat valorization results in 32% loss of this performance while using organic waste (domestic and agricultural residues) as feedstock avoids land resources. The use of digestate as a fertilizer is beneficial from a resource perspective, but causes increased nitrogen and methane emissions, which can be reduced by 50%, making anaerobic digestion an environmentally competitive bioenergy technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven De Meester
- Research Group ENVOC, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
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Claessens M, De Meester S, Van Landuyt L, De Clerck K, Janssen CR. Occurrence and distribution of microplastics in marine sediments along the Belgian coast. Mar Pollut Bull 2011; 62:2199-204. [PMID: 21802098 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.06.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 693] [Impact Index Per Article: 53.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2011] [Revised: 06/23/2011] [Accepted: 06/26/2011] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Plastic debris is known to undergo fragmentation at sea, which leads to the formation of microscopic particles of plastic; the so called 'microplastics'. Due to their buoyant and persistent properties, these microplastics have the potential to become widely dispersed in the marine environment through hydrodynamic processes and ocean currents. In this study, the occurrence and distribution of microplastics was investigated in Belgian marine sediments from different locations (coastal harbours, beaches and sublittoral areas). Particles were found in large numbers in all samples, showing the wide distribution of microplastics in Belgian coastal waters. The highest concentrations were found in the harbours where total microplastic concentrations of up to 390 particles kg(-1) dry sediment were observed, which is 15-50 times higher than reported maximum concentrations of other, similar study areas. The depth profile of sediment cores suggested that microplastic concentrations on the beaches reflect the global plastic production increase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michiel Claessens
- Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Aquatic Ecology, Ghent University, Jozef Plateaustraat 22, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium.
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Kuramochi H, Tanaka K, Oh D, Lehman B, Dunst C, Yang D, De Meester S, Hagen J, Danenberg K, De Meester T, Danenberg P. Thymidylate synthase polymorphisms and mRNA expression are independent chemotherapy predictive markers in esophageal adenocarcinoma patients. Int J Oncol 2008. [DOI: 10.3892/ijo.32.1.201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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