Estimated prevalence of compulsive buying in Germany and its association with sociodemographic characteristics and depressive symptoms

Compulsive shopping behaviour and executive dysfunction in young adults

"Compulsive Shopping" is characterized by poorly controlled preoccupations/urges/behaviors focused on shopping and spending, causing significant distress/impairment. This study looked at what roles executive and related memory problems might exist in compulsive shopping. 205 adults completed on-line questionnaires measuring compulsive shopping, mood, as well as working memory and inhibition components of executive function. The Bergen Shopping Addiction Scale was used to assign participants to either a High Compulsive Shopping (HCS) group or Low Compulsive Shopping (LCS) group. Working memory (WM) and inhibition control (IC) were measured as two components of executive function (EF) using the Adult Executive Functioning Inventory (ADEXI), the Dysexecutive Questionnaire Revised (DEX-R) measured general EF. The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale measured anxiety and depression. MANCOVA and mediation analyses were carried out controlling for age, gender, anxiety, depression. The HCS group scored significantly higher on all three EF measures, indicating greater executive difficulties. Subsequent mediation analyses with the ADEXI-IC as the mediator removed the significance of the relationship between Group and both the DEX-R and ADEXI-WM outcome variables. Thus, observed Group difference in DEX-R and ADEXI-WM could be fully accounted for by group differences in inhibitory control. The results highlight the role inhibitory control plays in compulsive shopping.

Big Five Personality Traits and Compulsive Buying: The Mediating Role of Self-Esteem

The inter-relationships between the Big Five personality traits, self-esteem, and compulsive buying are supported by strong empirical evidence. What is yet unknown is to what extent self-esteem can channel the influence of personality traits on compulsive buying. The main objective of this study is to explore the possible mediating role of self-esteem in the link between the Big Five personality traits and compulsive buying. Path analysis results, using a sample of 487 university students, generally confirm the suitability of the proposed model in which self-esteem mediated the effects of the Big Five personality traits (neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, openness to experience, and conscientiousness) on compulsive buying. Moreover, a direct effect of neuroticism and conscientiousness on compulsive buying was found. Finally, based on the finding that self-esteem acts as a necessary filter in the analysis of the five factors-compulsive buying relationship, several action-oriented guidelines for the prevention or intervention of this behavioral problem are suggested.

Exploring the associations between early maladaptive schemas and impulsive and compulsive buying tendencies

The main purpose of this preliminary study was to investigate a potential relationship between early maladaptive schemas (EMSs) and impulsive and compulsive buying tendencies in a sample of young adults (college students). This research adds to the cognitive perspective of consumer behavior that the cognitive schemas putatively associated with early experiences may have a strong impact on impulsive and compulsive buying. Data was obtained from 365 participants in a cross-sectional study design. Participants completed an online survey with the following instruments: Young Schema Questionnaire; Impulsive Buying Tendency Measurement Scale; Richmond Compulsive Buying Scale; and Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. Using multiple linear hierarchical regressions, we confirmed that the domain of over vigilance and inhibition schemas was positively associated with impulsive and compulsive buying tendencies, while an opposite association was found for the domain of impaired limits. Being a female was also a predictor of impulsive buying and compulsive buying. The results were discussed in terms of the coping mechanisms to deal with negative emotions, as a way to obtain rewards, or as a way to escape painful self-awareness. Other mechanisms related to the internalization of perfectionist expectations and the propensity to shame were also explored.

Student Stress and Online Shopping Addiction Tendency among College Students in Guangdong Province, China: The Mediating Effect of the Social Support

Online shopping addiction tendency (OSAT) among college students has become too serious to ignore. As a result, it is necessary to carefully examine the relevant factors that shape students' online shopping addiction tendencies. This study aimed to determine whether social support mediates the relationship between college students' stress (academic hassle, personal hassle, and negative life events) and OSAT. In this cross-sectional study using a convenient sampling method, Chinese students from eight universities in Guangdong Province, China, completed self-administered questionnaires in either printed or online format. The survey data includes daily online shopping usage, college student stress, a social support rating scale, an online shopping addiction tendency scale for college students, and demographic information. A total number of verified and valid questionnaires were returned. In a sample of 1123 (mean age = 20.28 years; 58% females). Each individual had online shopping experience. The survey revealed no gender differences in OSAT. There was a statistically significant relationship between student stress (academic hassle, personal hassle, and negative life events) and students' OSAT scores and social support. The latter was negatively correlated with OSAT and mediated the relationship between college students' stress and their OSAT. In conclusion, university students' stress (academic hassle, personal hassle, and negative life events) acts as a trigger for OSAT. A combination of a high stress level and a lack of social support increases the likelihood of developing OSAT. Social support has an effect on the OSAT of college students by relieving their stress; social support is a protective factor against the OSAT for college students.

The Roles of Anxiety and Self-Esteem in the Risk of Eating Disorders and Compulsive Buying Behavior

In contemporary society, following the sudden changes that occur, different forms of addiction are becoming popular. Of note are the new addictions and concepts of poly-dependencies that involve common behaviors and trap people who suffering from them in a vicious circle. The main goal of this study is to investigate the possible mediating role that self-esteem had between trait anxiety and two specific new addictions: compulsive buying behavior and eating disorders. Furthermore, it was verified through a multigroup analysis that trait anxiety had a greater effect on eating disorders in a group of compulsive consumers. Three-hundred and fifty-two participants (67.9% women) were enrolled to participate in this study. The results showed that there was a direct effect of trait anxiety on eating disorders and on compulsive buying behavior; self-esteem mediated the effect of trait anxiety on eating disorders and compulsive buying behavior with specific differences; multi-group analysis showed differences in anxiety's effect on eating disorders between compulsive and non-compulsive consumers; the group of compulsive consumers revealed a significant and stronger effect of trait anxiety on eating disorders in all domains identified. Further research is recommended to better understand the predictors of these disorders and to contribute to a more effective preventive intervention.

What Do We Know When We Know a Compulsive Buying Person? Looking at Now and Ahead

Over the last few decades, research has seamlessly confirmed the marked multicausal nature of compulsive buying, since variables from different realms (e.g., family, social, and contextual domains) have demonstrated their explanatory capacity. However, it has been personality variables that have, to a greater extent, aroused the interest of researchers, leading to what is now a cumbersome richness of personal constructs of different nature that seem to require some arrangement under integrative frameworks. The proposal by McAdams under the suggestive title of "What do we know when we know a person?" is, in this regard, especially attractive and thought-provoking. McAdams approaches us to the person as a whole by establishing three differentiated levels (dispositional traits, personal concerns or characteristics adaptations, life story), and it will be precisely these levels that will become the structure we will use to address the state of the art on compulsive buyers. The location of the multiple personal variables analyzed at each of the levels with a common grammar will allow us to identify what it is known, as well as what remains to be done in each space. Lastly, suggestions for the future are given, with particular emphasis on advancing our understanding of the person from each of the academic vantage points but also the suitability of designing studies that integrate and/or build bridges between dispositional traits, characteristic adaptations, and life narratives. The hope is that research in the coming years satisfactorily integrates the different visions of the person to achieve a more comprehensive, nuanced portrait of a person with compulsive buying problems.

Contrasting compulsive behaviour: Computerized text analysis of compulsion narratives

Those who gamble compulsively, and those who shop or buy in a compulsive manner share a number of common characteristics, stemming from similar impulse-control issues. As such, it is predicted that a lexical analysis of personal narratives of compulsion would share similarities. Using secondary data from an online mental health forum, Psychforums, the research analyzed narratives of compulsive gambling (n = 199) and compulsive buying (n = 196) using the automated text analysis tool, LIWC. The results indicated that compulsive buying narratives rated significantly higher in clout and emotional tone and significantly lower in authenticity, with no significant differences noted in analytical thinking between the two compulsion narratives. Recommendations for future research include that demographic variables be incorporated and that narratives sourced from different online platforms should be contrasted.

Problematic Shopping Behavior: An Item Response Theory Examination of the Seven-Item Bergen Shopping Addiction Scale

There has been an increasing amount of research examining problematic shopping behavior (PSB), often referred to in the psychological literature as "compulsive buying" or "shopping addiction." A popular scale for assessing the risk of PSB is the seven-item Bergen Shopping Addiction Scale (BSAS). To expand our knowledge of the psychometric properties of this instrument, the present study employed Item Response Theory (IRT) and differential item functioning analyses (DIF) while concurrently attempting to determine a preliminary cut-off point. A relatively large community sample completed the BSAS online (N = 968, M age = 29.5 years, SD age = 9.36, 32.5% women). IRT analyses showed differences regarding the BSAS items' discrimination, difficulty, and precision, with a raw score exceeding 23 (out of 28) indicating a higher risk of shopping addiction. Finally, while most BSAS items operated equally among males and females, Item 2 (mood modification) required a higher level of shopping addiction behaviors to be endorsed by males. The BSAS functions as a reliable assessment of the risk of shopping addiction, particularly between average and high levels of the trait. Clinical implications are discussed in light of these findings.

Compulsive buying gradually increased during the first six months of the Covid-19 outbreak

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The current Covid-19 situation offers a natural experiment to explore the effect of a chronic stressor on compulsive buying tendencies over an extended period of time.

DESIGN

Survey method of sampling every three days a new cohort during the first six months of the Covid-19 pandemic (March-October 2020) in the United States.

PARTICIPANTS

Total (clean) sample of N = 1,430 (39.3% female, mean age = 36.4 years).

MEASUREMENTS

Online and offline compulsive buying separately, distress, economic position, income and age were assessed.

FINDINGS

Both online and offline compulsive buying increased during the data collection period ( τ = 0.24, τ = 0.22, respectively, both P < 0.001). Individuals with self-reported high economic position (EP) reported the highest tendency for compulsive buying throughout the entire time frame, although the increase in compulsive buying tendencies over time was the most pronounced among the economically less privileged. Online compulsive buying increased after the CARES Act (first stimulus package) by an effect size of d = 0.33. When entered into a regression model, EP had the strongest effect on compulsive buying after accounting for the effect of distress, income and age. The high-EP group reported the strongest correlation between distress and compulsive buying (r = 0.67, P < 0.001, 95% CI: 0.57-0.76).

CONCLUSIONS

Compulsive buying tendency gradually increased during the first six months of the Covid-19 pandemic especially after the CARES Act.

The prevalence and psychological relation of problem shopping: data from a large-scale sample from Turkey

BACKGROUND

The purpose of the present study was to comprehensively examine the measurement aspects, the prevalence, and the psychological correlates of problem shopping among a large-scale national sample of Turkish adults.

RESULT

Participants (N = 24,380, 50% men, M age = 31.79 years, age range = 18-81 years) completed a questionnaire that comprised the Shopping Addiction Risk Questionnaire, the Brief Symptom Inventory, the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, and the Experiences in Close Relationships-Revised. Results showed that 1.8% of the participants had probable shopping addiction. Being female, being younger, psychiatric distress, positive affect, negative affect, anxious attachment, and avoidant attachment were positive correlates of problem shopping.

CONCLUSION

The results of this large sample size study suggest that shopping addiction is not a rare condition in Turkey. Further research is needed to understand different motives that underlie the problematic shopping behavior in the young and female population in comparison to older and male populations. Preventive programs or any interventions for people with PSB needs to address regulation difficulties and development of healthy strategies to cope with psychiatric distress.

The Prevalence of Compulsive Buying and Hoarding Behaviours in Emerging, Early, and Middle Adulthood: Multicentre Epidemiological Analysis of Non-clinical Chinese Samples

Behavioural addictions, such as compulsive buying (CB) and hoarding, are increasingly recognised in the current psychiatric nosology, particularly in developed countries. The prevalence of these disorders may not be static but possibly altered across different age groups. However, studies on this area are rare, and only few have focused on Chinese population. This epidemiological study employs population-based cross-sectional design and collects data in two regions, i.e., Hong Kong and Mainland China. A self-reported questionnaire is constructed based on carefully validated Chinese versions of Richmond Compulsive Buying Scale and Hoarding Rating Scale. A total of 2,439 valid samples are collected and divided into three age groups, i.e., emerging, early and middle adulthood. CB and hoarding behaviours have displayed an inverted u-shaped pattern across the above age groups. In addition, the strength of correlation between the two compulsive behaviours is consistent and maintained across different age groups. These results suggest that the compulsive behaviours vary among different stages of adulthood in major cities in China. This newly discovered pattern of compulsive disorders in Chinese population is different from those in American and European populations.

Life Aspirations, Generativity and Compulsive Buying in University Students

The study of goal-oriented behaviour, because of its undeniable repercussions on physical and mental health, is one of the target topics of contemporary research. However, the content of life aspirations, emphasised from the self-determination theory, has received little attention from the field of compulsive buying although it plays an important role in the regulation of behaviour and well-being. Generativity, the personal construct that captures the intentions and/or the need to contribute (leave a legacy) to others, has never been analysed with respect to compulsive buying although it has been the source of interest of related fields (responsible consumption). Accordingly, this study seeks to shed light on the role of both constructs (life aspirations and generativity) in compulsive buying among university students. The sample consisted of 1093 Spanish university students classified either as non-compulsive buyers or compulsive buyers. Estimated prevalence of compulsive buying was 7.9%. The results of Student's test confirm that, besides gender (women report greater propensity to the phenomenon), compulsive buyers score higher and show statistically significant differences with respect to non-compulsive buyers in all extrinsic goals (financial success, image, popularity and conformity) and hedonism. Non-compulsive buyers show significantly higher scores for the intrinsic goals of self-acceptance, affiliation and community feeling and also report a higher generative concern. The logistic regression analysis confirms that being female and the life aspirations of image, popularity and hedonism act as risk factors in compulsive buying in university students while generativity and the importance granted to the intrinsic goals of self-acceptance and affiliation are protective factors. Potential lines of action for this worrying phenomenon are discussed in the light of the findings.

Measurement of shopping addiction and its relationship with personality traits and well-being among Polish undergraduate students

There is still a scarcity of studies showing the relative contribution of different personality characteristics differentiating various behavioral addictions within an integrated model. In comparison to other addictions, fairly little is known about the role of specific personality traits in compulsive shopping. In addition, few studies have investigated the unique contribution of shopping addiction in terms of explaining different facets of well-being above and beyond personality characteristics previously shown to be related to psychosocial functioning. The present study shows validation of the Bergen Shopping Addiction Scale (BSAS) and a tentative integrated model of potential shopping addiction personality risk factors. BSAS was administered to 1156 Polish students. In addition, demographic variables, and personality traits (Big Five), self-esteem, self-efficacy, perceived narcissism, loneliness, social anxiety, and well-being indicators were measured. BSAS had acceptable fit with the data and demonstrated good reliability. The investigated model showed that shopping addiction was related to higher extraversion, perceived narcissism, and social anxiety, and lower agreeableness and general self-efficacy. Woman and older participants scored higher on BSAS. Shopping addiction was further related to all facets of impaired well-being and explained worse general health, and decreased sleep quality above and beyond other variables in the model. The results support the notion that shopping addiction may have specific personality risk factors with low agreeableness as an outstanding characteristic. This has implications for the development of early prevention and intervention programs.

Big Five Personality Traits, Coping Strategies and Compulsive Buying in Spanish University Students

Personality traits and coping strategies have historically been two key elements in the field of health psychology. It is, therefore, striking that there is no study in the field of compulsive buying that integrates the most generic, decontextualized and stable aspects (traits) with those having a more marked processual and dynamic nature, which are closer to goal-based views of human nature (coping strategies). Another weakness of the compulsive buying field is that, despite the confirmed growing increase in compulsive buying in the younger age groups, most studies have been conducted with adult samples. Hence, this study seeks to clarify the role of the Big Five domains and different coping strategies in university students’ compulsive buying. The sample consisted of 1093 participants who were classified as either compulsive buyers or non-compulsive buyers. Both groups were compared regarding sociodemographic variables (gender, age), the Big Five personality traits, and coping strategies through chi-square tests or Student’s t-tests. Besides, a multivariate logistic regression analysis was conducted to determine which of these determinants might play a part in the construction of a risk profile for compulsive buying. The results showed that other than gender (specifically being female), Neuroticism and the use of such coping strategies as problem avoidance and wishful thinking are risk factors that increase the propensity for compulsive buying. The use of active coping strategies such as problem solving, cognitive restructuring and social support, as well as the Conscientiousness dimension are protection factors that decrease the likelihood of becoming a compulsive buyer. Finally, and on the basis of the findings obtained, possible guidelines are given, which, hopefully, may effectively contribute to the prevention of and/or intervention in compulsive buying among young adults.

The Prevalence of Impulse Control Disorders and Behavioral Addictions in Eating Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Aim: Individuals with eating disorders (EDs) may present with impulse control disorders (ICDs) and behavioral addictions (BAs), which may result in additional suffering and treatment resistance. However, the prevalence of ICDs and BAs in EDs has not been systematically examined. Therefore, this systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to assess the prevalence of ICDs and BAs in ED samples. Methods: A comprehensive electronic database search of the peer-reviewed literature was conducted in the following online databases: MEDLINE, PsycINFO, Embase, and CINAHL from their inception to May 2021. We restricted review eligibility to research studies reporting prevalence for ICDs or BAs in individuals with diagnosed EDs. The outcome for this review was the prevalence of ICDs or BAs in individuals with EDs. A series of random-effects meta-analyses were performed on eligible studies to estimate the pooled proportions and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Results: Thirty-five studies met the inclusion criteria, including a total of 9,646 individuals identified as having an ED, 18 of these studies specifically examined ICDs/BAs in AN, BN, and BED. Random-effects pooled estimates demonstrated that the comorbid prevalence of any ICD was 22%. The prevalence of comorbid pathological/compulsive buying was highest (19%), followed by kleptomania (18%), pathological internet use (12%), intermittent explosive disorder (4%), trichotillomania (3%), and gambling disorder (2%). In addition, the prevalence of stealing/shoplifting behaviors was 30% in those with EDs. Conclusion: This is the first meta-analysis on the comorbid prevalence of EDs and ICDs/BAs. We found a moderate prevalence for these comorbid conditions, with approximately one out of five individuals with an ED also displaying a comorbid ICD/BA. Although causal inferences cannot be drawn, the numbers strongly suggest that clinical screening/monitoring of ICDs/BAs should be part of the clinical routine in cohorts with EDs. ED settings need either the capacity to manage these disorders or adequate access to relevant services. Further investigations are needed to reveal common underlying pathomechanisms. Systematic Review Registration: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/, identifier: CRD42020202044.

Non-Suicidal Self-Injury and Pathological Buying in Community Adults and Patients with Eating Disorders: Associations with Reactive and Regulative Temperament

The present study investigated the (co-)occurrence of non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) and pathological buying (PB) and their associations with reactive/regulative temperament in a sample of female patients with eating disorders (ED) and in a sample of community adults. Our samples consisted of 254 community adults (48.8% female) and 60 female patients with ED. All participants filled out self-report questionnaires to assess NSSI, PB, and reactive/regulative temperament. Prevalence rates of NSSI and PB were respectively 14.5% and 4.8% for community women, 13.1% and 1.5% for community men, and 36.7% and 10% for female patients with ED. Only for community women, NSSI was positively related to PB. NSSI was negatively related to self-regulation in community men and women. Additionally, NSSI was negatively predicted by BAS reactivity in the clinical sample and by the interaction of BAS reactivity and self-regulation in community men. PB was predicted by low self-regulation in the three groups. Additionally, PB was positively predicted by BAS reactivity and by the interaction of BAS reactivity and self-regulation in community women. These findings indicated group differences in the (co-)occurrence of NSSI and PB and in their associations with underlying temperamental characteristics between individuals with and without ED.

[The Pathological Buying Screener: Validation in a Clinical Sample]

AIM

The aim of the study was to evaluate the psychometric properties of the 13-item Pathological Buying Screener (PBS, [1]) in a clinical sample.

METHOD

The PBS was administered to a total sample of 413 treatment-seeking patients (buying-shopping disorder n=151, gambling disorder n=59, alcohol dependency n=60, other mental disorders [anxiety, depressive, eating, somatoform disorders] n=143). Factor structure was tested in the total sample using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), reliability was determined by means of Cronbach's α. Group comparisons were used to determine to which degree the PBS discriminates between patients with BSD and other clinical groups. The BSD-group completed a battery of other measures to explore convergent and divergent validity. A subgroup (n=29) answered the PBS before and after psychotherapy to investigate sensitivity to change. A receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis with PBS data of patients with buying-shopping disorder and those from a previous community sample 1 was performed to define a cut-off point for buying-shopping disorder.

RESULTS

The CFA showed a good model fit for both a one-factor and a two-factor structure with the subscales "loss of control/consequences" (10 items) and "excessive buying behavior" (3 items). The subscales were highly intercorrelated (r=0.92). A hierarchical regression analysis with another BSD measure as dependent variable did not indicate an own incremental validity of the subscale "excessive buying behavior". Good convergent, divergent and discriminative capacity was obtained for the PBS total score. At its recommended cut-off point of ≥29 the PBS has a sensitivity of 98% and a specificity of 94.7%.

CONCLUSION

The findings indicate good psychometric properties of the PBS and suggest that the PBS total score can be used in clinical settings.

Treatment of compulsive buying disorder: comparing the effectiveness of cognitive behavioural therapy with person-centred experiential counselling

Background:

Outcome studies of the treatment of compulsive buying disorder (CBD) have rarely compared the effectiveness of differing active treatments.

Aims:

This study sought to compare the effectiveness of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) and person-centred experiential therapy (PCE) in a cross-over design.

Method:

This was an ABC single case experimental design with extended follow-up with a female patient meeting diagnostic criteria for CBD. Ideographic CBD outcomes were intensively measured over a continuous 350-day time series. Following a 1-month baseline assessment phase (A; 28 days; three sessions), CBT was delivered via 13 out-patient sessions (B: 160 days) and then PCE was delivered via six out-patient sessions (C: 63 days). There was a 99-day follow-up period.

Results:

Frequency and duration of compulsive buying episodes decreased during active treatment. CBT and PCE were both highly effective compared with baseline for reducing shopping obsessions, excitement about shopping, compulsion to shop and improving self-esteem. When the PCE and CBT treatment phases were compared against each other, few differences were apparent in terms of outcome. There was no evidence of any relapse over the follow-up period. A reliable and clinically significant change on the primary nomothetic measure (i.e. Compulsive Buying Scale) was retained over time.

Conclusions:

The study suggests that both CBT and PCE can be effective for CBD. Methodological limitations and suggestions for future CBD outcome research are discussed.

Buying-shopping disorder-is there enough evidence to support its inclusion in ICD-11?

The phenomenon of buying-shopping disorder (BSD) was described over 100 years ago. Definitions of BSD refer to extreme preoccupation with shopping and buying, to impulses to purchase that are experienced as irresistible, and to recurrent maladaptive buying excesses that lead to distress and impairments. Efforts to stop BSD episodes are unsuccessful, despite the awareness of repeated break-downs in self-regulation, experiences of post-purchase guilt and regret, comorbid psychiatric disorders, reduced quality of life, familial discord, work impairment, financial problems, and other negative consequences. A recent meta-analysis indicated an estimated point prevalence of BSD of 5%. In this narrative review, the authors offer a perspective to consider BSD as a mental health condition and to classify this disorder as a behavioral addiction, based on both research data and on long-standing clinical experience.

Predictive Effects of Sex, Age, Depression, and Problematic Behaviors on the Incidence and Remission of Internet Addiction in College Students: A Prospective Study

The aim of the study was to determine the predictive effects of sex, age, depression, and problematic behaviors on the incidence and remission of internet addiction (IA) in college students over a one-year follow-up. A total of 500 college students (262 women and 238 men) were recruited. The predictive effects of sex, age, severity of depression, self-harm/suicidal behaviors, eating problems, risk-taking behaviors, substance use, aggression, and uncontrollable sexual encounters on the incidence and remission of IA over a one-year follow-up were examined. The one-year incidence and remission rates for IA were 7.5% and 46.4%, respectively. Severity of depression, self-harm and suicidal behaviors, and uncontrollable sexual encounters at the initial investigation predicted the incidence of IA in a univariate analysis, whereas only severity of depression predicted the incidence of IA in a multivariable logistic regression (p = 0.015, odds ratio = 1.105, 95% confidence intervals: 1.021–1.196). A relatively young age predicted the remission of IA. Depression and young age predicted the incidence and remission, respectively, of IA in college students in the one-year follow-up.

Compulsive buying in Paris psychology students: Assessment of DSM-5 personality trait domains

Compulsive buying is associated with significant psychiatric comorbidity, such as personality disorders. Few studies have focused on the dimensional model of personality disorders in compulsive buying. We aimed to assess the eventual presence of personality dysfunctions in compulsive buying according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder, 5th edition (DSM-5) dimensional conception of personality disorders. We screened online compulsive buying (QABB), characterized purchasing behavior and explored DSM-5 personality trait domains (Personality Inventory for DSM-5-Brief Form [PID-5-BF]) in 233 Paris psychology students using an online self-reporting questionnaire. The prevalence of compulsive buying among students was 7.7% (n = 18). The favorite items purchased by compulsive buyers were clothing and cosmetic products. Three mean trait domain scores were significantly higher for CB+ than CB- students: negative affect, detachment and disinhibition. Our findings suggest that compulsive buyers distinctively feature pathological DSM-5 dimensional personality trait domains.

Adaptation and validation of Richmond Compulsive Buying Scale in Chinese population

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Compulsive buying (CB) is a behavioral addiction that is conceptualized as an obsessive-compulsive and impulsive-control disorder. The Richmond Compulsive Buying Scale (RCBS), a six-item self-reporting instrument that has been validated worldwide, was developed based on this theoretical background. This study aimed to adapt RCBS to the Chinese population (RCBS-TC) to guide future national and international prevalence studies.

METHODS

This methodological study was conducted in two phases. Phase 1 involved the forward and backward translation of RCBS, the content and face validation of the RCBS, and the evaluation of its translation adequacy. Phase 2 involved the psychometric testing of RCBS-TC for its internal consistency, stability, and construct validity using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA).

RESULTS

In Phase 1, RCBS-TC obtained satisfactory item-level (I-CVI = 83.3%-100%) and scale-level content validity index (CVI/AVE = 97.2%), comprehensibility (100%), and translation adequacy [intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) = 0.858]. In Phase 2, based on data collected from 821 adults, RCBS-TC demonstrated a satisfactory internal consistency (Cronbach's α = .88; corrected item-total correlation coefficients = 0.61-0.78) 2-week test-retest reliability (ICC = 0.82 based on 61 university students). For construct validation, the CFA results indicated that the corrected first-order two-factor models were acceptable with the same goodness-of-fit indices (χ²/df = 8.56, CFI = 0.99, NFI = 0.98, IFI = 0.99, and RMSEA = 0.09). The 2-week test-retest reliability of RCBS-TC (n = 61) was also satisfactory (ICC = 0.82).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

This methodological study adopted appropriate and stringent procedures to ensure that the translation and validation of RCBS-TC was of quality. The results indicate that this scale has a satisfactory reliability and validity for the Chinese population.

Problematic internet use as an age-related multifaceted problem: Evidence from a two-site survey

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Problematic internet use (PIU; otherwise known as Internet Addiction) is a growing problem in modern societies. There is scarce knowledge of the demographic variables and specific internet activities associated with PIU and a limited understanding of how PIU should be conceptualized. Our aim was to identify specific internet activities associated with PIU and explore the moderating role of age and gender in those associations.

METHODS

We recruited 1749 participants aged 18 and above via media advertisements in an Internet-based survey at two sites, one in the US, and one in South Africa; we utilized Lasso regression for the analysis.

RESULTS

Specific internet activities were associated with higher problematic internet use scores, including general surfing (lasso β: 2.1), internet gaming (β: 0.6), online shopping (β: 1.4), use of online auction websites (β: 0.027), social networking (β: 0.46) and use of online pornography (β: 1.0). Age moderated the relationship between PIU and role-playing-games (β: 0.33), online gambling (β: 0.15), use of auction websites (β: 0.35) and streaming media (β: 0.35), with older age associated with higher levels of PIU. There was inconclusive evidence for gender and gender × internet activities being associated with problematic internet use scores. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and social anxiety disorder were associated with high PIU scores in young participants (age ≤ 25, β: 0.35 and 0.65 respectively), whereas generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) were associated with high PIU scores in the older participants (age > 55, β: 6.4 and 4.3 respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

Many types of online behavior (e.g. shopping, pornography, general surfing) bear a stronger relationship with maladaptive use of the internet than gaming supporting the diagnostic classification of problematic internet use as a multifaceted disorder. Furthermore, internet activities and psychiatric diagnoses associated with problematic internet use vary with age, with public health implications.

The association between financial literacy and Problematic Internet Shopping in a multinational sample

Purpose

To examine the association between financial literacy and Problematic Internet Shopping in adults.

Methods

This cross-sectional online survey recruited participants, aged between 18 and 60 years, through an online research facility. The sample consisted of multinational participants from mainly three continents including Europe, North America, and Asia. Problematic Internet Shopping was assessed using the Bergen Shopping Addiction Scale (BSAS). Financial Literacy was measured by the Financial Literacy subscale of the Financial Wellbeing Questionnaire. Multiple linear regression analyses were conducted to elucidate the relationship between the study and outcome variables with adjustment for other potential risk factors.

Results

Of the total of 997 respondents with an average age of 30.9 (s.d. = 8.8), 135 (13.8%) could be classified as having a high risk of being Problematic Internet Shoppers. Results from the multiple regression analyses suggested a significant and negative relationship between financial literacy and Problematic Internet Shopping with a regression coefficient of − 0.13, after controlling for the effects of potential risk factors such as age, region of birth, employment, income, shopping frequency, self-regulation and anxiety (t = − 6.42, p < 0.001).

Conclusions

The clinical management of PIS should include a financial counselling as a component of the treatment regime. Enhancement of financial literacy in the general population, particularly among young people, will likely have a positive effect on the occurrence of PIS.

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Problematic Internet Shopping requires more attention due to its financial implications.

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Financial literacy could be considered as a personal risk factor of Problematic Internet Shopping.

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No studies on financial literacy and Problematic Internet Shopping so far.

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Results found financial literacy is related to Problematic Internet Shopping.

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Enhancing financial literacy could possibly reduce Problematic Internet Shopping.

Compulsive buying and quality of life: An estimate of the monetary cost of compulsive buying among adults in early midlife

The aims of this study were to examine the associations between compulsive buying and quality of life and to estimate the monetary cost of compulsive buying for a cohort of men and women at mean age 43. Participants came from a community-based random sample of residents in two New York counties (N=548). The participants were followed from adolescence to early midlife. The mean age of participants at the most recent interview was 43.0 (SD=2.8). Fifty five percent of the participants were females. Over 90% of the participants were white. Linear regression analyses showed that compulsive buying was significantly associated with quality of life, despite controlling for relevant demographic and psychosocial factors. The estimated monetary cost of compulsive buying for this cohort was significant. The fact that the monetary cost of CB is not trivial suggests that individuals are both consciously and unconsciously plagued by their CB. The findings are important for interventionists and clinicians for cost-effective intervention and treatment programs.

The Role of Self-esteem and Fear of Negative Evaluation in Compulsive Buying

Compulsive buying is a relatively new addictive disorder that interferes with everyday functioning and may result in serious psychological and financial problems (1). A very few data are currently available regarding this behavioral addiction. This study investigated gender differences in the relationships between contingent self-esteem (CSE), fear of negative evaluation (FNE), and compulsive buying. Participants included 240 Italian adults (170 females, M age = 33.80) who responded to self-report questionnaires. The results showed that women scored higher on CSE and FNE scales than men. No gender differences were found in compulsive buying tendencies. CSE and FNE were positively related to CB. Furthermore, structural equation modeling confirmed the evidence on CSE as a strong predictor of CB for both genders. Interestingly, FNE seems to play a mediating role between CSE and compulsive buying behaviors only for women. These findings highlight the importance of studying self-esteem in compulsive buying tendencies to inquire more deeply into the underlying mechanisms of some compulsive behaviors.

Psychiatric and socioeconomic aspects as possible predictors of compulsive buying behavior

Introduction:

Compulsive buying can be characterized as an almost irresistible urge to buy various items. Compulsive buying disorder is a subject of growing interest to health professionals. It is a current issue and the prevalence rate in the global population is around 5 to 8%.

Objectives:

The main objective of this study was to identify predictors of compulsive buying in the Brazilian population, assessing possible relationships between compulsive buying, depression and anxiety.

Methods:

The Richmond Compulsive Buying Scale was administered to screen for compulsive buying and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale was used to assess anxiety and depression in a sample of 359 participants. Pearson coefficients were used to test for correlations.

Results:

Our study identified an interaction between female gender and compulsion to purchase. Furthermore, people's occupations also appear to have an influence on the problem. We found a correlation between depressive symptoms and oniomania.

Conclusion:

Our study has certain limitations, such as the difficulty in recruiting individuals with compulsive buying disorder. Since compulsive buying is a phenomenon that is seldom investigated, it therefore remains unidentified. However, this is nevertheless a pioneering paper on the Brazilian population.

Prevalence study of compulsive buying in a sample with low individual monthly income

INTRODUCTION

Compulsive buying can be characterized as an almost irresistible impulse to acquire various items. This is a current issue and the prevalence rate in the global population is around 5 to 8%. Some surveys indicate that the problem is growing in young and low-income populations.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the prevalence of compulsive buying among people with low personal monthly incomes and analyze relationships with socio-demographic data.

METHODS

The Compulsive Buying Scale was administered to screen for compulsive buying and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale was used to assess anxiety and depression in a sample of 56 participants. Pearson coefficients were used to test for correlations.

RESULTS

The results indicated that 44.6% presented an average family income equal to or greater than 2.76 minimum wages. It is possible that compulsive buying is not linked to the purchasing power since it was found in a low-income population.

CONCLUSION

Despite the small sample, the results of this study are important for understanding the problem in question.

Prevalence and co-occurrence of compulsive buying, problematic Internet and mobile phone use in college students in Yantai, China: relevance of self-traits

BACKGROUND

Until now, most research in the prevalence of compulsive buying (CB) has been developed from samples in western developed countries, this study aimed to estimate the prevalence and co-morbidities of CB, problematic Internet use (PIU) and problematic mobile phone use (PMPU) in college students in Yantai, China. Moreover, based on the lack of research focusing on differences between CB and addiction, we will explore whether CB and PIU/PMPU individuals are characterized by the same self-traits (i. e., self-control, self-esteem and self-efficacy) related profile.

METHODS

A total of 601 college students were involved in this cross-sectional study. Compulsive buying, problematic Internet and mobile phone use and self-traits were assessed by self-reported questionnaires. The demographic information and use characteristics were included in the questionnaires.

RESULTS

The incidence of CB, PIU and PMPU were 5.99, 27.8 and 8.99% respectively. In addition, compared with rural students, students from cities are more likely to get involved in CB. Students using mobile phone to surf the Internet displayed higher risk of PIU than counterparts using computer. Students using Internet or mobile phone longer are more prone to problematic use. Furthermore, we found the strong correlations and high co-morbidities of CB, PIU and PMPU and self-control was the most significant predictor for all three disorders. However, self-esteem and self-efficacy were significant predictors only for CB.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicated that with the prevalence of CB and PMPU roughly equivalent to that demonstrated in previous studies, PIU in Chinese college students is serious and deserves more attention. Furthermore, besides the impulsive aspect common with addiction, CB is also driven by painful self-awareness derived from low self-regard which implies the obsessive-compulsive aspect.

Gender Differences in Compulsive Buying Disorder: Assessment of Demographic and Psychiatric Co-Morbidities

Compulsive buying is a common disorder found worldwide. Although recent research has shed light into the prevalence, etiology and clinical correlates of compulsive buying disorder, less is known about gender differences. To address this empirical gap, we assessed potential gender differences in demographic and psychiatric co-morbidities in a sample of 171 compulsive buyers (20 men and 151 women) voluntarily seeking treatment in São Paulo, Brazil. A structured clinical interview confirmed the diagnosis of compulsive buying. Of the 171 participants, 95.9% (n = 164) met criteria for at least one co-morbid psychiatric disorder. The results found that male and female compulsive buyers did not differ in problem severity as assessed by the Compulsive Buying Scale. However, several significant demographic and psychiatric differences were found in a multivariate binary logistic regression. Specifically, male compulsive buyers were more likely to report being non-heterosexual, and reported fewer years of formal education. In regards to psychiatric co-morbidities, male compulsive buyers were more likely to be diagnosed with sexual addiction, and intermittent explosive disorder. Conversely, men had lower scores on the shopping subscale of the Shorter PROMIS Questionnaire. The results suggest that male compulsive buyers are more likely to present with co-morbid psychiatric disorders. Treatment planning for compulsive buying disorder would do well to take gender into account to address for potential psychiatric co-morbidities.

Cognitive behavioral therapy for compulsive buying behavior: Predictors of treatment outcome

BACKGROUND

Compulsive buying behavior (CBB) is receiving increasing consideration in both consumer and psychiatric-epidemiological research, yet empirical evidence on treatment interventions is scarce and mostly from small homogeneous clinical samples.

OBJECTIVES

To estimate the short-term effectiveness of a standardized, individual cognitive behavioral therapy intervention (CBT) in a sample of n=97 treatment-seeking patients diagnosed with CBB, and to identify the most relevant predictors of therapy outcome.

METHOD

The intervention consisted of 12 individual CBT weekly sessions, lasting approximately 45minutes each. Data on patients' personality traits, psychopathology, sociodemographic factors, and compulsive buying behavior were used in our analysis.

RESULTS

The risk (cumulative incidence) of poor adherence to the CBT program was 27.8%. The presence of relapses during the CBT program was 47.4% and the dropout rate was 46.4%. Significant predictors of poor therapy adherence were being male, high levels of depression and obsessive-compulsive symptoms, low anxiety levels, high persistence, high harm avoidance and low self-transcendence.

CONCLUSION

Cognitive behavioral models show promise in treating CBB, however future interventions for CBB should be designed via a multidimensional approach in which patients' sex, comorbid symptom levels and the personality-trait profiles play a central role.

Treatments for compulsive buying: A systematic review of the quality, effectiveness and progression of the outcome evidence

Background and aims This review appraises the progression and status of the evidence base for the treatment of compulsive buying disorder (CBD), in order to highlight what currently works and to prompt useful future research. Methods Online databases ISI Web of Knowledge, PsycINFO, and PubMed via Ovid were searched at two time points. Two quality checklists and an established model of therapy evaluation (hourglass model) evaluated the quality and progression of both psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy treatments for CBD. Uncontrolled effect sizes were calculated and meta-regression analyses were performed regarding treatment duration. Results A total of 29 articles met the inclusion criteria, which were divided into psychotherapy (n = 17) and pharmacotherapy treatments (n = 12). Of the 29 studies, only 5 studies have been tested under conditions of high methodological quality. Both forms of treatment had been evaluated in a haphazard manner across the stages of the hourglass model. Although large effects were demonstrated for group psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy, such evidence of effectiveness was undermined by poor study quality and risk of publication bias. Long-term CBD treatment was associated with improved outcome with pharmacotherapy, but not when delivering psychotherapy. Discussion Group psychotherapy currently appears the most promising treatment option for CBD. Poor methodological control and sporadic evaluation of specific treatments have slowed the generation of a convincing evidence base for CBD treatment. Defining the active ingredients of effective CBD treatment is a key research goal.

Compulsive buying and hoarding as identity substitutes: The role of materialistic value endorsement and depression

PURPOSE

In the present study, we investigated whether the relationship between identity confusion and compulsive buying (offline/online) and hoarding is mediated by materialistic value endorsement and depression.

PROCEDURES

The community sample consisted of 254 Flemish adults who completed self-report questionnaires to assess identity confusion (Erikson Psychosocial Stage Inventory), compulsive buying tendencies (Compulsive Buying Scale/short-Internet Addiction Scale, adapted for shopping), hoarding tendencies (Saving-Inventory Revised), materialistic value endorsement (Materialistic Value Scale), and depression (Patient Health Questionnaire-9).

FINDINGS

We found significant positive associations between identity confusion, compulsive buying, and hoarding. The association between identity confusion and compulsive buying was fully mediated by materialistic value endorsement; whereas depression mediated the association between identity confusion and hoarding.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that the collection or buying of material goods can be considered as identity substitutes.

Compulsive Buying Behavior: Clinical Comparison with Other Behavioral Addictions

Compulsive buying behavior (CBB) has been recognized as a prevalent mental health disorder, yet its categorization into classification systems remains unsettled. The objective of this study was to assess the sociodemographic and clinic variables related to the CBB phenotype compared to other behavioral addictions. Three thousand three hundred and twenty four treatment-seeking patients were classified in five groups: CBB, sexual addiction, Internet gaming disorder, Internet addiction, and gambling disorder. CBB was characterized by a higher proportion of women, higher levels of psychopathology, and higher levels in the personality traits of novelty seeking, harm avoidance, reward dependence, persistence, and cooperativeness compared to other behavioral addictions. Results outline the heterogeneity in the clinical profiles of patients diagnosed with different behavioral addiction subtypes and shed new light on the primary mechanisms of CBB.

Pathological buying and partnership status

This pilot study investigated the partnership status and the level of pathological buying (PB) in 157 female patients with PB and 1153 women from a German population-based sample. Slightly more than half of both samples were currently living with a partner. The results suggest a protective effect of being in a couple relationship in the representative sample. In contrast, having a partner was not related to the severity of PB among patients. Future studies should address the question of whether the characteristics and quality of partnership have an impact on the severity and course of PB, and vice versa.

Associations between compulsive buying and substance dependence/abuse, major depressive episodes, and generalized anxiety disorder among men and women

The objective of this study was to examine the associations between compulsive buying and substance dependence/abuse, major depressive episodes, and generalized anxiety disorder at the mean age of 43. Participants came from a community-based random sample of residents in 2 New York counties in 1975 (N = 548). The participants were followed from adolescence to early midlife. The mean age of participants at the most recent interview was 43.0 (standard deviation = 2.8). Of the participants, 55% were females. Over 90% of the participants were Caucasian. The prevalence of substance dependence/abuse, major depressive episodes, and generalized anxiety disorder (during the past 5 years before the interviews) was 6.6, 13.7, and 11.5%, respectively. Logistic regression analyses showed that compulsive buying was significantly associated with substance dependence/abuse (adjusted odds ratio = 1.60), major depressive episodes (adjusted odds ratio = 1.70), and generalized anxiety disorder (adjusted odds ratio = 1.63), despite controlling for substance dependence/abuse, major depressive episodes, and generalized anxiety disorder, respectively, at the mean age of 37, and demographic factors. Since the study sample is limited to predominantly Caucasian participants (over 90%) with a close association to a small geographic area, the findings may not be generalizable to racial/ethnic minority groups or individuals living in other parts of the country. Nevertheless, it is important that clinicians treating substance dependence/abuse, major depressive episodes, and generalized anxiety disorder consider the role of compulsive buying.

Compulsive Buying Behavior: Characteristics of Comorbidity with Gambling Disorder

Compulsive buying behavior (CBB) has begun to be recognized as a condition worthy of attention by clinicians and researchers. Studies on the commonalities between CBB and other behavioral addictions such as gambling disorder (GD) exist in the literature, but additional research is needed to assess the frequency and clinical relevance of the comorbidity of CBB and GD. The aim of the study was to estimate the point-prevalence of CBB+GD in a clinical setting. Data corresponded to n = 3221 treatment-seeking patients who met criteria for CBB or GD at a public hospital unit specialized in treating behavioral addictions. Three groups were compared: only-CBB (n = 127), only-GD (n = 3118) and comorbid CBB+GD (n = 24). Prevalence for the co-occurrence of CBB+GD was 0.75%. In the stratum of patients with GD, GD+CBB comorbidity obtained relatively low point prevalence (0.77%), while in the subsample of CBB patients the estimated prevalence of comorbid GD was relatively high (18.9%). CBB+GD comorbidity was characterized by lower prevalence of single patients, higher risk of other behavioral addictions (sex, gaming or internet), older age and age of onset. CBB+GD registered a higher proportion of women compared to only-GD (37.5 vs. 10.0%) but a higher proportion of men compared to only-CBB (62.5 vs. 24.4%). Compared to only-GD patients, the simultaneous presence of CBB+GD was associated with increased psychopathology and dysfunctional levels of harm avoidance. This study provides empirical evidence to better understand CBB, GD and their co-occurrence. Future research should help delineate the processes through which people acquire and develop this comorbidity.