Cognitive dysfunction correlates with elevated serum S100B concentration in drug-free acutely relapsed patients with schizophrenia

Peripheral S100B Protein Levels in Five Major Psychiatric Disorders: A Systematic Review

Five major psychiatric disorders: schizophrenia, major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, autistic spectrum disorder, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, show a shared genetic background and probably share common pathobiological mechanisms. S100B is a calcium-binding protein widely studied in psychiatric disorders as a potential biomarker. Our systematic review aimed to compare studies on peripheral S100B levels in five major psychiatric disorders with shared genetic backgrounds to reveal whether S100B alterations are disease-specific. EMBASE, Web of Science, and PubMed databases were searched for relevant studies published until the end of July 2023. This study was performed according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis Protocols (PRISMA) guidelines. Overall, 1215 publications were identified, of which 111 full-text articles were included in the systematic review. Study designs are very heterogeneous, performed mostly on small groups of participants at different stages of the disease (first-episode or chronic, drug-free or medicated, in the exacerbation of symptoms or in remission), and various clinical variables are analyzed. Published results are inconsistent; most reported elevated S100B levels across disorders included in the review. Alterations in S100B peripheral levels do not seem to be disease-specific.

Vascular-related biomarkers in psychosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

While the molecular underpinnings of vascular dysfunction in psychosis are under active investigation, their implications remain unclear due to inconsistent and sometimes sparse observations. We conducted a comprehensive meta-analysis to critically assess the alterations of vascular-related molecules in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and blood of patients with psychotic disorders compared with healthy individuals.

Methods

Databases were searched from inception to February 23, 2023. Meta-analyses were performed using a random-effects model. Meta-regression and subgroup analyses were conducted to assess the effects of clinical correlates.

Results

We identified 93 eligible studies with 30 biomarkers investigated in the CSF and/or blood. Among the biomarkers examined, psychotic disorders were associated with elevated CSF-to-serum albumin ratio (standardized mean difference [SMD], 0.69; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.35-1.02); blood S100B (SMD, 0.88; 95% CI, 0.59-1.17), matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9; SMD, 0.66; 95% CI, 0.46-0.86), and zonulin (SMD, 1.17; 95% CI, 0.04-2.30). The blood levels of S100B, MMP-9, nerve growth factor (NGF), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1), and vascular adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1) were altered in patient subgroups differing in demographic and clinical characteristics. Blood S100B level was positively correlated with age and duration of illness. Substantial between-study heterogeneity was observed in most molecules.

Conclusion

The alterations in certain vascular-related fluid markers in psychotic disorders suggest disturbances in normal vascular structures and functions. However, not all molecules examined displayed clear evidence of changes. While potential impacts of clinical factors, including the administered treatment, were identified, the exploration remained limited. Further studies are needed to investigate the diverse patterns of expression, and understand how these abnormalities reflect the pathophysiology of psychosis and the impact of clinical factors.

Serum s100b protein levels as a neuroinflammatory biomarker of acutely relapsed paranoid schizophrenia patients

OBJECTIVE

The s100b inflammatory protein is involved in schizophrenia pathophysiology. We aim at studying the evolution of the s100b serum levels in acutely relapsed paranoid schizophrenia patients at three different time points (admission, discharge and 3 months after hospital discharge 3MAHD).

METHODS

Twenty-three paranoid schizophrenia inpatients meeting DSM-IV criteria participated in the research. Twenty-three healthy subjects matched by age, gender and season acted as the control group. Psychopathology was measured with the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS). Serum s100b levels were determined at 12:00 and 24:00 h with an enzyme-linked immunoassay kit.

RESULTS

Patients had significant higher serum s100b levels at admission and discharge (12:00 h) than the group of healthy subjects. At admission and discharge, s100b serum levels at 24 h had decreased compared to the 24:00 h s100b levels of the healthy subjects. At 3MAHD patients and healthy subjects had similar levels of serum s100b protein. Positive and negative PANSS scores decreased significantly between admission and discharge. Positive and negative PANSS scores decreased between discharge and 3MAHD, but these changes had no statistical significance.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study confirms that the acute inflammatory response produced in acutely relapsed patients is reversed after 3 month of hospital discharge. The variations of serum s100b concentrations when the patients suffer from an acute relapse may be a useful predictor of disease evolution.

Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Damage Associated Molecular Patterns HMGB1 and S100B in Schizophrenia

OBJECTIVE

Immune system dysregulation is hypothesised to be central to the aetiopathogenesis of schizophrenia; however, the role of sterile inflammation remains unclear. Damage associated molecular patterns are key initiators of sterile inflammation and are detectable in peripheral blood.

METHODS

A defined systematic search of the Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus was performed to identify adult case-control studies published between January 1990 and June 2022. Three studies consisting of 242 cases and 83 controls met inclusion for the systematic review and meta-analysis of HMGB1 while twenty-eight studies consisting of 1,544 cases and 1,248 healthy controls were included for S100B.

RESULTS

A significant standardised mean difference in peripheral S100B and HMGB1 concentrations was detected between cases and controls. S100B subgroup analysis determined the largest significant effect size for unmedicated individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia.

CONCLUSION

This study provides evidence that peripheral S100B and HMGB1 concentrations are elevated in individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia when compared with healthy controls. These results should be interpreted with caution as significant heterogeneity was present during meta-analysis of S100B in the entire sample and in sub-group analysis. The persistence of significant heterogeneity throughout subgroup analysis indicates that the current diagnostic groupings may be a barrier to understanding human behaviours and emotions.

Correlation of BDNF , VEGF , TNF ‐α, and S100B with cognitive impairments in chronic, medicated schizophrenia patients

Cognitive impairment is a prominent cause of disability in schizophrenia. Although antipsychotic drugs can rescue the psychotic symptoms, the cognitive impairments persist, with no treatment available. Alterations of BDNF, VEGF, TNF‐α, and S100B have been linked to cognitive impairment in several neurological disorders. However, it remains unclear whether their levels are correlated with the cognitive functions of schizophrenia patients. Forty‐one chronic, medicated schizophrenia patients were included in this study. Enzyme‐linked, immunosorbent assays were used to measure the serum concentrations of BDNF, VEGF, TNF‐α, and S100B. Associations between serum protein levels and various domains of the cognitive functions of the schizophrenia patients were observed. We found significant, positive correlations between serum BDNF and the processing speed and attention levels of the patients. Serum VEGF was also positively correlated with their memory and learning functions. In contrast, serum S100B and TNF‐α were negatively correlated with the processing speed and attention of the schizophrenia patients. The findings warrant further investigation of these molecules as potential prognostic markers or treatment targets for cognitive impairment in schizophrenia patients.

Associations between serum protein levels and domains of the cognitive functions of the schizophrenia patients were investigated. The results show 1) positive correlations between serum BDNF and the processing speed and attention levels, 2) positive correlations between serum VEGF and the memory and learning functions, and 3) negative correlation between serum S100B and TNF‐α and the processing speed and attention.

Correlation between S100B and severity of depression in MDD: A meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have demonstrated elevated levels of the S100B protein (located in glial cells) in major depressive disorder (MDD) as compared to healthy controls. However, studies reporting correlation between S100B levels and depression severity have been conflicting.

METHODS

We investigated, through systematic review and meta-analysis, whether the correlation between S100B levels and depression severity is significant in patients with MDD. Pearson correlation coefficients reported in the individual studies were converted to Fisher's Z scores, then pooled using the random effects model. Meta-regression was used to test modifiers of the effect size.

RESULTS

Sixteen studies including 658 patients with MDD met eligibility criteria. No publication bias was observed. There was a significant and positive correlation between serum S100B level and depression severity (r = 0.204, z = 2.297, p = 0.022). A meta-regression determined that onset age of MDD and percentage of female participants are significant modifiers of this correlation. A moderate, but non-significant heterogeneity was observed in serum studies (44%).

CONCLUSION

As many studies have reported significantly increased levels of S100B in MDD compared to controls, this meta-analysis supports the assumption that the increase in S100B correlates with the severity of MDD. Additional studies investigating the precise biological connection between S100B and MDD are indicated.

Predictive effect of Bayes discrimination in the level of serum protein factors and cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia

Finding molecular biomarkers that can be related to the degree of cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia remains a challenge. The levels of 6 Serum Protein Factors (NGF, BDNF, IL-6, TNF-α, S100β, GFAP) in peripheral blood of patients with schizophrenia were measured. The cognitive function of patients with schizophrenia was assessed by MATRICS Consensus Cognitive Battery (MCCB), a systematic assessment tool of international gold standard for cognitive function assessment of schizophrenia. To explore the correlation between these 6 biomarkers and the degree of cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia,78 schizophrenic patients and 71 healthy controls were included in the study. The serum concentrations of BDNF and GFAP were lower in the patient group, but the concentrations of IL-6, TNF-α and S100β were higher. The speed of information processing, word learning, reasoning and problem solving, visual learning T-score of the patient group were lower than the control group. Bayes discriminant function model has a high correct discriminant rate for the severity of cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia. The level of serum protein factor and clinical symptom score of schizophrenia may forecast the degree of cognitive dysfunction, which is expected to be a potential biomarker to identify the degree of cognitive dysfunction of schizophrenia, and provide objective basis for the clinical diagnosis and treatment of patients with schizophrenia.

Abnormal synaptic plasticity and impaired cognition in schizophrenia

Schizophrenia (SCZ) is a severe mental illness that affects several brain domains with relation to cognition and behaviour. SCZ symptoms are typically classified into three categories, namely, positive, negative, and cognitive. The etiology of SCZ is thought to be multifactorial and poorly understood. Accumulating evidence has indicated abnormal synaptic plasticity and cognitive impairments in SCZ. Synaptic plasticity is thought to be induced at appropriate synapses during memory formation and has a critical role in the cognitive symptoms of SCZ. Many factors, including synaptic structure changes, aberrant expression of plasticity-related genes, and abnormal synaptic transmission, may influence synaptic plasticity and play vital roles in SCZ. In this article, we briefly summarize the morphology of the synapse, the neurobiology of synaptic plasticity, and the role of synaptic plasticity, and review potential mechanisms underlying abnormal synaptic plasticity in SCZ. These abnormalities involve dendritic spines, postsynaptic density, and long-term potentiation-like plasticity. We also focus on cognitive dysfunction, which reflects impaired connectivity in SCZ. Additionally, the potential targets for the treatment of SCZ are discussed in this article. Therefore, understanding abnormal synaptic plasticity and impaired cognition in SCZ has an essential role in drug therapy.

Hippocampal microglia CD40 mediates NPSLE cognitive dysfunction in mice

Neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus (NPSLE) is the most serious and complicated clinical manifestation of lupus erythematosus. Cognitive dysfunction is the most common symptom of NPSLE. A variety of potential mechanisms or mediators related to the pathogenesis of NPSLE cognitive dysfunction have been proposed. However, the involvement of microglia CD40 has not been reported yet. This study aimed to investigate whether hippocampal microglia CD40 of MRL/MpJ-Fas^lpr (MRL/lpr) mice was involved in NPSLE cognitive dysfunction. This study found, using quantitative polymerase chain reaction, western blotting and immunohistochemistry, that hippocampal CD40 was aberrantly overexpressed in the MRL/lpr lupus mice. It also determined using flow cytometry and immunofluorescence that the aberrantly overexpressed CD40 was mainly derived from hippocampal microglia. The adeno-associated virus was used to inhibit microglia CD40 expression, and the brain damage and cognitive dysfunction of MRL/lpr mice improved. Also, imiquimod (IMQ)-induced lupus mice had the same NPSLE cognitive dysfunction, brain damage, and overexpressed hippocampal microglia CD40 as MRL/lpr mice. Therefore, IMQ-induced lupus mouse was proposed as one of the mouse models for studying NPSLE cognitive dysfunction for the first time in this study. The findings indicated that hippocampal microglia CD40 was involved in the development of NPSLE cognitive dysfunction, thus providing a novel research direction for the study of the pathogenesis of NPSLE.

Disruption of the blood-brain barrier in 22q11.2 deletion syndrome

Neuroimmune dysregulation is implicated in neuropsychiatric disorders including schizophrenia. As the blood-brain barrier is the immunological interface between the brain and the periphery, we investigated whether this vascular phenotype is intrinsically compromised in the most common genetic risk factor for schizophrenia, the 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22qDS). Blood-brain barrier like endothelium differentiated from human 22qDS+schizophrenia-induced pluripotent stem cells exhibited impaired barrier integrity, a phenotype substantiated in a mouse model of 22qDS. The proinflammatory intercellular adhesion molecule-1 was upregulated in 22qDS+schizophrenia-induced blood-brain barrier and in 22qDS mice, indicating compromise of the blood-brain barrier immune privilege. This immune imbalance resulted in increased migration/activation of leucocytes crossing the 22qDS+schizophrenia blood-brain barrier. We also found heightened astrocyte activation in murine 22qDS, suggesting that the blood-brain barrier promotes astrocyte-mediated neuroinflammation. Finally, we substantiated these findings in post-mortem 22qDS brain tissue. Overall, the barrier-promoting and immune privilege properties of the 22qDS blood-brain barrier are compromised, and this might increase the risk for neuropsychiatric disease.

S100B and brain derived neurotrophic factor in monozygotic twins with, at risk of and without affective disorders

BACKGROUND

The calcium binding protein S100B and brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) are both biomarkers implicated in neuronal processes in the central nervous system and seem to be associated with affective disorders. Here we investigated both markers in a sample of monozygotic (MZ) twins with, at risk of and without affective disorders, aiming to evaluate whether these markers have a role as causal factors- or trait markers for affective disorders.

METHOD

We measured serum S100B and plasma BDNF levels in 204 monozygotic twins (MZ) with unipolar or bipolar disorder in remission or partial remission (affected), their unaffected co-twins (high-risk) and twins with no personal or family history of affective disorder (low-risk).

RESULTS

No significant group differences in S100B and BDNF levels were found between the three groups. Exploratory analysis revealed that higher S100B levels were correlated with lower cognitive performance.

LIMITATIONS

The cross-sectional design cannot elucidate the two neuronal biomarkers role as causal factors. We would have preferred a higher sample size in the high- and low-risk groups.

CONCLUSION

The present result did not support a role for S100B and BDNF as neither causal factors nor trait markers for affective disorders. Elevated S100B levels may associate with impaired cognition, but further studies are warranted.

Different serum protein factor levels in first-episode drug-naive patients with schizophrenia characterized by positive and negative symptoms

AIM

The clinical features of schizophrenia can be mainly divided into two symptom domains: positive and negative. Patients in each symptom domain respond differently to treatments, and their prognoses vary accordingly. Serum protein factors, such as nerve growth factor (NGF), neurotrophin-3 (NT-3), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), and the calcium-binding protein, S100β, have been reported to be involved in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. However, their roles in the positive and negative symptom domains have not been determined. In this study, we investigated whether the serum levels of these five protein factors differed among first-episode drug-naive schizophrenia patients in each symptom domain and in healthy controls.

METHODS

Double-antibody sandwich ELISA were used to quantify the amounts of the five protein factors in serum.

RESULTS

Compared with the levels in the controls (n = 60), increased serum levels of IL-6, IL-1β, and S100β and decreased serum levels of NGF and NT-3 were observed in first-episode drug-naive schizophrenia patients. Additionally, the serum levels of IL-6 and IL-1β were significantly higher in schizophrenia patients characterized by negative symptoms (negative group, n = 37) than in those characterized by positive symptoms (positive group, n = 46). Based on multivariate regression analyses, serum levels of IL-1β were positively associated with the Negative Symptom subscore of the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale in the negative group and in all patients with schizophrenia.

CONCLUSION

The two subtypes of schizophrenia may have different pathological mechanisms. Patients characterized by negative symptoms probably have more serious disturbances in neuroimmunology.

Blood-brain barrier pathology in patients with severe mental disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis of biomarkers in case-control studies

Background

Blood-brain barrier (BBB) pathology may be associated with mental disorders. The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis is to identify, evaluate and summarize available evidence on whether potential biomarkers of BBB pathology are altered in patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders, major depression and bipolar disorder compared to healthy controls.

Methods

The primary outcome is blood S100B, while secondary outcomes include biomarkers in blood and/or cerebrospinal fluid, i.e. albumin ratio, fibrinogen, immunoglobulin G, glial fibrillary acidic protein, amyloid beta (Aβ), matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases, endothelial glycocalyx constituents, and cell adhesion molecules (CAMs). A systematic search in PubMed, Embase and PsycINFO resulted in 131 eligible studies, of which 93 were included in the meta-analysis. Meta- and subgroup analyses were undertaken using random-effects modelling. The protocol was a priori registered on PROSPERO (CRD42020152721).

Results

S100B was increased in schizophrenia spectrum disorders (24 studies; 1107 patients; standardized mean difference (SMD) ​= ​0.82; 95% confidence interval (CI) ​= ​0.51 to 1.13; I² ​= ​90%), major depression (13 studies; 584 patients; SMD ​= ​0.57; 95% CI ​= ​0.31 to 0.83; I² ​= ​73%) and bipolar disorder (4 studies; 142 patients; SMD ​= ​0.55; 95% CI ​= ​0.16 to 0.94; I² ​= ​48%). Similarly, numerous secondary outcomes, including albumin ratio, fibrinogen, Aβ, MMPs and CAMs, were altered. Results of the included studies varied considerably, and important confounders were often not accounted for.

Conclusions

The findings implicate occurrence of BBB pathology in patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders, major depression and bipolar disorder compared to healthy controls. However, definite conclusions cannot be drawn, mainly because the investigated biomarkers are indirect measures of BBB pathology.

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The blood-brain barrier (BBB) can be studied indirectly through markers in blood and CSF.

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Markers of BBB pathology were altered in schizophrenia, depression and bipolar disorder.

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The findings implicate occurrence of BBB pathology in patients compared to controls.

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BBB pathology is expected to contribute to the pathogenesis of severe mental disorders.

Cerebrospinal fluid BDNF pro-peptide levels in major depressive disorder and schizophrenia

The role of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and its related molecules has been extensively studied in the context of psychiatric disorders. In the present study, we focused on the newly identified BDNF pro-peptide, which is generated together with mature BDNF by proteolytic processing of their precursor, proBDNF. Here, we report, for the first time, that BDNF pro-peptide is present in human cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and quantifiable by western blotting. We measured CSF BDNF pro-peptide levels in 27 patients with schizophrenia, 18 patients with major depressive disorder (MDD), and 27 healthy controls matched for age, sex, and ethnicity (Japanese). The ratio of the BDNF pro-peptide level to the total protein level in MDD patients was significantly lower than that in controls (Kruskal-Wallis with Dunn's multiple comparisons test; p = 0.046). When men and women were examined separately, males with MDD had a significantly lower BDNF pro-peptide/protein ratio than male controls (p = 0.047); this difference was not found in female subjects. The ratio tended to be lower in male schizophrenia patients (p = 0.10). Although we tried to measure the levels of mature BDNF in CSF, they were below the limit of detection of the ELISA and multiple analyte profiling technology. Taken together, the results suggest that reduced CSF BDNF pro-peptide levels are associated with MDD, particularly in males. Further studies involving a larger sample size are warranted.

More dampened monocytic Toll-like receptor 4 response to lipopolysaccharide and its association with cognitive function in Chinese Han first-episode patients with schizophrenia

OBJECTIVE

Accumulating evidence suggests alterations of the innate immune system are related to schizophrenia, although the precise mechanism remains to be elucidated. In this study, we aimed to detect the monocytic toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) expression under basal and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated conditions in first-episode (FE) Han Chinese patients with schizophrenia, as well as its association with cognitive function.

METHODS

Whole blood samples were taken in 42 FE schizophrenia patients and 36 healthy controls. Expressions of TLR4 on monocytes under basal and LPS-stimulated conditions were measured with flow cytometry. Psychopathological symptoms of schizophrenia were assessed by the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) and the MATRICS Consensus Cognitive Battery (MCCB) was administered to all of the participants.

RESULTS

We found no differences in percentage and mean fluorescence intensity (MFI) of TLR4 expression on monocytes between patients and controls at basal status. However, LPS challenge resulted in a lower cell-surface level of TLR4 on monocytes in FE schizophrenia patients as compared to healthy controls (TLR4+%: F = 4.092, p = 0.047; TLR4 + MFI: F = 4.820, p = 0.031). In addition, correlation analysis together with multivariate linear regression analysis identified basal percentage of TLR4 in monocytes as the beneficial factor for visual learning and working memory in FE patients with schizophrenia.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggested that TLR4 may be involved in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia, corroborating the role of innate immunity-related functional deficits in increased risk of schizophrenia.

Blood-brain barrier regulation in psychiatric disorders

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a dynamic interface between the peripheral blood supply and the cerebral parenchyma, controlling the transport of material to and from the brain. Tight junctions between the endothelial cells of the cerebral microvasculature limit the passage of large, negatively charged molecules via paracellular diffusion whereas transcellular transportation across the endothelial cell is controlled by a number of mechanisms including transporter proteins, endocytosis, and diffusion. Here, we review the evidence that perturbation of these processes may underlie the development of psychiatric disorders including schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and affective disorders. Increased permeability of the BBB appears to be a common factor in these disorders, leading to increased infiltration of peripheral material into the brain culminating in neuroinflammation and oxidative stress. However, although there is no common mechanism underpinning BBB dysfunction even within each particular disorder, the tight junction protein claudin-5 may be a clinically relevant target given that both clinical and pre-clinical research has linked it to schizophrenia, ASD, and depression. Additionally, we discuss the clinical significance of the BBB in diagnosis (genetic markers, dynamic contrast-enhanced-magnetic resonance imaging, and blood biomarkers) and in treatment (drug delivery).

Resting-state Brain Activity Changes Associated with Tardive Dyskinesia in Patients with Schizophrenia: Fractional Amplitude of Low-frequency Fluctuation Decreased in the Occipital Lobe

We explored resting-state brain activity and its potential links to clinical parameters in schizophrenic patients with tardive dyskinesia (TD) using fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations (fALFF). Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging data were acquired from 32 schizophrenic patients with TD (TD group), 31 without TD (NTD group), and 32 healthy controls (HC group). Clinical parameters including psychopathological symptoms, severity of TD, and cognitive function were assessed using the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale, Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale (AIMS), and Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status, respectively. Pearson correlation analyses were performed to determine the relationship between the regions with altered fALFF values and clinical parameters in TD patients. The TD group showed decreased fALFF in the left middle occipital gyrus (MOG) and the right calcarine sulcus (CAL) compared to the HC group, and decreased fALFF in the left cuneus compared to the NTD group. In the TD group, fALFF values in the left MOG and the right CAL were correlated separately with the delayed memory score (r = 0.44, p = 0.027; r = 0.43, p = 0.028, respectively). The AIMS total score was negatively correlated to the visuospatial/constructional score (r = -0.53, p = 0.005). Our findings suggested that resting-state brain activity changes were associated with TD in schizophrenic patients. There was an association between the decreased brain activity in the occipital lobe and the delayed memory cognition impairment in this population.

Elevated Plasma S100B, Psychotic Symptoms, and Cognition in Schizophrenia

S100B is a calcium binding protein mainly produced by glial cells. Previous studies have shown elevated levels of S100B in patients with schizophrenia. We measured S100B levels in fasting plasma of 39 patients with schizophrenia and 19 adult healthy controls. We used linear regression to compare S100B between patients and controls. In patients only, we also investigated the relationship between S100B levels and psychotic symptoms (assessed by the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale), and cognitive function (assessed by the NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery), respectively by calculating Pearson's correlation coefficients. Mean plasma S100B was significantly higher in the patient group than in the control group. There were no significant correlations between plasma S100B and psychotic symptoms or cognition.

A clinical approach to new-onset psychosis associated with immune dysregulation: the concept of autoimmune psychosis

Growing data point to the overlap between psychosis and pathological processes associated with immunological dysregulation as well as inflammation. Notably, the recent discovery of antibodies against synaptic and neuronal cell membrane proteins such as anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor provides more direct evidence of the etiological connection between autoimmunity and subsequent hazard of psychosis. Here, we advocate the use of term “autoimmune psychosis,” as this term suggests that autoimmune disorders can masquerade as drug-resistant primary psychosis, and this subtype of psychosis has anatomical and immunological footprints in the brain, despite the frequent absence of structural abnormalities on conventional brain MRI. Furthermore, this term might serve as a reminder not to overlook appropriate neurological workup such as neuroimaging and EEG testing, as well as CSF analysis, for cases with acute or subacute atypical onset of neuropsychiatric presentations including those dominated by acute psychotic symptoms. We propose etiologically and serologically oriented subclassification as well as multi-modal diagnostic approach to address some of the challenges inherent to early diagnosis of patients presenting with atypical and refractory new-onset psychotic symptoms of autoimmune origin. This is particularly relevant to the diagnosis of seronegative but probable autoimmune psychosis (SPAP) that might masquerade as antipsychotic drug-resistant primary psychotic disorder. This distinction is therapeutically important as autoimmune-related psychotic symptomatology can frequently respond well to timely treatment with proper immune modulatory therapies.

The Insertion of Electrodes in the Brain for Electrophysiological Recording or Chronic Stimulation Is Not Associated With Any Biochemically Detectable Neuronal Injury

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to evaluate the degree of brain tissue injury that could be potentially induced by the introduction of a) microrecording electrodes, b) macrostimulation electrodes, or c) chronic stimulation electrodes. We aimed to evaluate whether the use of five simultaneous microrecording tracks is associated with any brain injury not detectable by conventional imaging such as CT or MRI.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study included 61 patients who underwent surgery for implantation of 121 DBS leads. In all cases, five simultaneous tracts were utilized for microelectrode recordings. All patients underwent measurements of serum S-100b at specific time points as follows: a) prior to the operation, and b) intraoperatively at specific stages of the procedure: 1) after opening the burr hole, 2) after the insertion of microrecording electrodes, 3) during macrostimulation, 4) at the end of the operation, and 5) on the first postoperative day.

RESULTS

The levels of serum S-100B protein remained within the normal range during the entire period of investigation in all patients with the exception of two cases. In both patients, the procedure was complicated by intraparenchymal hemorrhage visible in neuro-imaging. The first patient developed a small intraparenchymal hemorrhage, visible on the postoperative MRI, with no neurological deficit. The second patient experienced a focal epileptic seizure after the insertion of the right DBS chronic lead and the postoperative CT scan revealed a right frontal lobe hemorrhage.

CONCLUSION

These results strongly indicate that the insertion of either multiple recording electrodes or the implantation of chronic electrodes in DBS does not increase the risk of brain hemorrhage or of other intracranial complications, and furthermore it does not cause any biochemically detectable brain tissue damage.

Day/night changes in serum S100B protein concentrations in acute paranoid schizophrenia

There are day/night and seasonal changes in biological markers such as melatonin and cortisol. Controversial changes in serum S100B protein levels have been described in schizophrenia. We aim studying whether serum S100B levels present day/night variations in schizophrenia patients and whether S100B levels are related to psychopathology. Sixty-five paranoid schizophrenic inpatients participated in the study. Psychopathology was assessed with the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) at admission and discharge. Blood was drawn at 12:00 (midday) and 00:00 (midnight) hours at admission and discharge. Sixty-five healthy subjects matched by age, gender and season acted as control group. At admission and discharge patients had significantly higher serum S100B concentrations at midday and midnight than healthy subjects. At admission, patients showed a day/night variation of S100B levels, with higher S100B levels at 12:00 than at 00:00h (143.7±26.3pg/ml vs. 96.9±16.6pg/ml). This day/night difference was not present in the control group. Midday and midnight S100B at admission decreased when compared to S100B at discharge (midday, 143.7±26.3 vs. 83.0±12, midnight 96.9±16.6 vs. 68.6±14.5). There was a positive correlation between the PANSS positive subscale and S100B concentrations at admission. This correlation was not present at discharge.

CONCLUSIONS

acute paranoid schizophrenia inpatients present a day/night change of S100B serum levels at admission that disappears at discharge. The correlation between serum S100B concentrations and the PANSS positive scores at admission as well as the decrease of S100B at discharge may be interpreted as an acute biological response to the clinical state of the patients.