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Rahman K, Khan SU, Fahad S, Chang MX, Abbas A, Khan WU, Rahman L, Haq ZU, Nabi G, Khan D. Nano-biotechnology: a new approach to treat and prevent malaria. Int J Nanomedicine 2019; 14:1401-1410. [PMID: 30863068 PMCID: PMC6390872 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s190692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria, the exterminator of ~1.5 to 2.7 million human lives yearly, is a notorious disease known throughout the world. The eradication of this disease is difficult and a challenge to scientists. Vector elimination and effective chemotherapy for the patients are key tactics to be used in the fight against malaria. However, drug resistance and environmental and social concerns are the main hurdles in this fight against malaria. Overcoming these limitations is the major challenge for the 21st-century malarial researchers. Adapting the principles of nano-biotechnology to both vector control and patient therapy is the only solution to the problem. Several compounds such as lipids, proteins, nucleic acid and metallic nanoparticles (NPs) have been successfully used for the control of this lethal malaria disease. Other useful natural reagents such as microbes and their products, carbohydrates, vitamins, plant extracts and biodegradable polymers, are also used to control this disease. Among these particles, the plant-based particles such as leaf, root, stem, latex, and seed give the best antagonistic response against malaria. In the present review, we describe certain efforts related to the control, prevention and treatment of malaria. We hope that this review will open new doors for malarial research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khaista Rahman
- College of Animal Sciences/State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Shahid Ullah Khan
- College of Plant Sciences and Technology/National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China,
| | - Shah Fahad
- College of Plant Sciences and Technology/National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China,
- Department of Agriculture, The University of Swabi, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Anbar, Pakistan,
| | - Ming Xian Chang
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, Hubei, China,
- University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shijingshan District, Beijing, China,
| | - Aqleem Abbas
- Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, Huazhong Agricultural University, Hongshan District, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Wasim Ullah Khan
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Lutfur Rahman
- Molecular Systematics & Applied Ethno Botany Lab (MoSEL), Department of Biotechnology, Quaid I Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Zaheer Ul Haq
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Ghulam Nabi
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, Hubei, China,
- University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shijingshan District, Beijing, China,
| | - Dilfaraz Khan
- Institute of Chemical Sciences, Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan
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Essential Role of the PfRh5/PfRipr/CyRPA Complex during Plasmodium falciparum Invasion of Erythrocytes. Cell Host Microbe 2016; 20:60-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2016.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2015] [Revised: 04/05/2016] [Accepted: 05/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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Ahmed AM, Pinheiro MM, Divis PC, Siner A, Zainudin R, Wong IT, Lu CW, Singh-Khaira SK, Millar SB, Lynch S, Willmann M, Singh B, Krishna S, Cox-Singh J. Disease progression in Plasmodium knowlesi malaria is linked to variation in invasion gene family members. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014; 8:e3086. [PMID: 25121807 PMCID: PMC4133233 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2013] [Accepted: 06/30/2014] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Emerging pathogens undermine initiatives to control the global health impact of infectious diseases. Zoonotic malaria is no exception. Plasmodium knowlesi, a malaria parasite of Southeast Asian macaques, has entered the human population. P. knowlesi, like Plasmodium falciparum, can reach high parasitaemia in human infections, and the World Health Organization guidelines for severe malaria list hyperparasitaemia among the measures of severe malaria in both infections. Not all patients with P. knowlesi infections develop hyperparasitaemia, and it is important to determine why. Between isolate variability in erythrocyte invasion, efficiency seems key. Here we investigate the idea that particular alleles of two P. knowlesi erythrocyte invasion genes, P. knowlesi normocyte binding protein Pknbpxa and Pknbpxb, influence parasitaemia and human disease progression. Pknbpxa and Pknbpxb reference DNA sequences were generated from five geographically and temporally distinct P. knowlesi patient isolates. Polymorphic regions of each gene (approximately 800 bp) were identified by haplotyping 147 patient isolates at each locus. Parasitaemia in the study cohort was associated with markers of disease severity including liver and renal dysfunction, haemoglobin, platelets and lactate, (r = ≥ 0.34, p = <0.0001 for all). Seventy-five and 51 Pknbpxa and Pknbpxb haplotypes were resolved in 138 (94%) and 134 (92%) patient isolates respectively. The haplotypes formed twelve Pknbpxa and two Pknbpxb allelic groups. Patients infected with parasites with particular Pknbpxa and Pknbpxb alleles within the groups had significantly higher parasitaemia and other markers of disease severity. Our study strongly suggests that P. knowlesi invasion gene variants contribute to parasite virulence. We focused on two invasion genes, and we anticipate that additional virulent loci will be identified in pathogen genome-wide studies. The multiple sustained entries of this diverse pathogen into the human population must give cause for concern to malaria elimination strategists in the Southeast Asian region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atique M. Ahmed
- Malaria Research Centre, University Malaysia Sarawak, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia
| | - Miguel M. Pinheiro
- School of Medicine, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom
| | - Paul C. Divis
- Malaria Research Centre, University Malaysia Sarawak, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia
| | - Angela Siner
- Malaria Research Centre, University Malaysia Sarawak, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia
| | - Ramlah Zainudin
- Malaria Research Centre, University Malaysia Sarawak, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia
- Faculty of Resource Science and Technology, University Malaysia Sarawak, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia
| | | | | | - Sarina K. Singh-Khaira
- Division of Clinical Sciences, St. George's, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Scott B. Millar
- School of Medicine, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom
| | - Sean Lynch
- Clinical Blood Sciences, St. George's, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Matthias Willmann
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Balbir Singh
- Malaria Research Centre, University Malaysia Sarawak, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia
| | - Sanjeev Krishna
- Malaria Research Centre, University Malaysia Sarawak, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia
- Division of Clinical Sciences, St. George's, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Janet Cox-Singh
- Malaria Research Centre, University Malaysia Sarawak, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia
- School of Medicine, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom
- Division of Clinical Sciences, St. George's, University of London, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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Affiliation(s)
- Gavin J. Wright
- Cell Surface Signalling Laboratory, Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Malaria Programme, Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (GJW); (JCR)
| | - Julian C. Rayner
- Malaria Programme, Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (GJW); (JCR)
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Patel SD, Ahouidi AD, Bei AK, Dieye TN, Mboup S, Harrison SC, Duraisingh MT. Plasmodium falciparum merozoite surface antigen, PfRH5, elicits detectable levels of invasion-inhibiting antibodies in humans. J Infect Dis 2013; 208:1679-87. [PMID: 23904294 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jit385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum is an intracellular protozoan parasite that infects erythrocytes and hepatocytes. The blood stage of its life cycle causes substantial morbidity and mortality associated with millions of infections each year, motivating an intensive search for potential components of a multi-subunit vaccine. In this study, we present data showing that antibodies from natural infections can recognize a recombinant form of the relatively conserved merozoite surface antigen, PfRH5. Furthermore, we performed invasion inhibition assays on clinical isolates and laboratory strains of P. falciparum in the presence of affinity purified antibodies to RH5 and show that these antibodies can inhibit invasion in vitro.
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Hayton K, Dumoulin P, Henschen B, Liu A, Papakrivos J, Wellems TE. Various PfRH5 polymorphisms can support Plasmodium falciparum invasion into the erythrocytes of owl monkeys and rats. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2013; 187:103-10. [PMID: 23305874 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2012.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2012] [Revised: 12/15/2012] [Accepted: 12/17/2012] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Aotus nancymaae, the owl monkey, provides a useful laboratory model for research to develop drugs and vaccines against human falciparum malaria; however, many Plasmodium falciparum parasites are unable to invade A. nancymaae erythrocytes, rendering the parasites noninfective to the monkeys. In previous work, we identified a key polymorphism that determined the inheritance of erythrocyte invasion in a genetic cross of two P. falciparum clones that were virulent (GB4) or noninfective (7G8) to A. nancymaae. This polymorphism, an isoleucine-to-lysine polymorphism at position 204 (I204K) of the GB4 erythrocyte binding protein PfRH5, was nevertheless not found in several other P. falciparum lines that could also invade A. nancymaae erythrocytes. Alternative PfRH5 polymorphisms occur at different positions in these virulent parasites, and additional polymorphisms are found in P. falciparum parasites that cannot infect A. nancymaae. By allelic replacement methods, we have introduced the polymorphisms of these A. nancymaae-virulent or noninfective parasites at codons 204, 347, 358, 362, 410, and 429 of the endogenous PfRH5 gene in the noninfective 7G8 line. 7G8 transformants expressing the polymorphisms of the A. nancymaae-virulent parasites show neuraminidase-sensitive (sialic acid-dependent) invasion into the monkey erythrocytes, whereas 7G8 transformants expressing the PfRH5 alleles of noninfective parasites show little or no invasion of these erythrocytes. Parasites harboring PfRH5 polymorphisms 204K or 204R are also able to invade rat erythrocytes and are differentially sensitive to the removal of surface sialic acids by neuraminidase. These studies offer insights into the PfRH5 receptor-binding domain and interactions that support the invasion of various primate and rodent erythrocytes by P. falciparum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Hayton
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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A single amino acid change in the Plasmodium falciparum RH5 (PfRH5) human RBC binding sequence modifies its structure and determines species-specific binding activity. Vaccine 2012; 30:637-46. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2011] [Revised: 08/27/2011] [Accepted: 11/03/2011] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Plasmodium falciparum merozoite invasion is inhibited by antibodies that target the PfRh2a and b binding domains. PLoS Pathog 2011; 7:e1002075. [PMID: 21698217 PMCID: PMC3116812 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2010] [Accepted: 04/09/2011] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum, the causative agent of the most severe form of malaria in humans invades erythrocytes using multiple ligand-receptor interactions. The P. falciparum reticulocyte binding-like homologue proteins (PfRh or PfRBL) are important for entry of the invasive merozoite form of the parasite into red blood cells. We have analysed two members of this protein family, PfRh2a and PfRh2b, and show they undergo a complex series of proteolytic cleavage events before and during merozoite invasion. We show that PfRh2a undergoes a cleavage event in the transmembrane region during invasion consistent with activity of the membrane associated PfROM4 protease that would result in release of the ectodomain into the supernatant. We also show that PfRh2a and PfRh2b bind to red blood cells and have defined the erythrocyte-binding domain to a 15 kDa region at the N-terminus of each protein. Antibodies to this receptor-binding region block merozoite invasion demonstrating the important function of this domain. This region of PfRh2a and PfRh2b has potential in a combination vaccine with other erythrocyte binding ligands for induction of antibodies that would block a broad range of invasion pathways for P. falciparum into human erythrocytes. The causative agent of the most severe form of malaria in humans is the protozoan parasite Plasmodium falciparum. These parasites are carried by a mosquito that infects humans during feeding resulting in injection of sporozoite forms that infect and develop in the liver into the merozoite stage. The merozoites are released into the blood stream where they invade erythrocytes in which they can grow and divide. Invasion of the red blood cell by P. falciparum merozoites involves a cascade of protein-protein interactions. The P. falciparum reticulocyte binding-like homologue proteins (PfRh or PfRBL) are an important protein family involved in binding to specific receptors on the red blood cell. We have analysed two members of this protein family, PfRh2a and PfRh2b, and show that they undergo a complex series of cleavage events before and during merozoite invasion. We have defined the region of these ligands that bind red blood cells and show that antibodies to this receptor-binding region block merozoite invasion demonstrating the important function of this domain.
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Min-Oo G, Willemetz A, Tam M, Canonne-Hergaux F, Stevenson MM, Gros P. Mapping of Char10, a novel malaria susceptibility locus on mouse chromosome 9. Genes Immun 2009; 11:113-23. [PMID: 19865104 DOI: 10.1038/gene.2009.78] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Resistance to blood-stage malaria in AcB55 and AcB61 is caused by a loss of function mutation in pyruvate kinase (Pklr(I90N)). Likewise, pyruvate kinase (PK) deficiency in humans is protective against Plasmodium replication in vitro. We identified a third AcB strain, AcB62 that also carries the Pklr(I90N) mutation. However, AcB62 mice were susceptible to P.chabaudi infection and showed high levels of parasite replication (54-62% peak parasitemia). AcB62 mice showed the hallmarks of PK deficiency-associated anemia similar to AcB55/61 with reticulocytosis, splenic red pulp expansion, tissue iron overload, and increased expression of iron metabolism proteins. This suggests that malaria susceptibility in AcB62 is not because of absence of PK deficiency-associated pathophysiology. To map novel genetic factors affecting malaria susceptibility in AcB62, we generated an informative F2 population using AcB62 (Pklr(I90N)) and CBA-Pk(slc) (Pklr(G338D)) as progenitors and identified a novel locus on chromosome 9 (Char10; LOD=7.24) that controls peak parasitemia. A weaker linkage to the Pklr region of chromosome 3 (LOD=3.7) was also detected, a finding that may reflect the segregation of the two defective Pklr alleles. AcB62 alleles at both loci are associated with higher peak parasitemia. These results identify Char10 as a novel locus modulating severity of malaria in the context of PK deficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Min-Oo
- Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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