1
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Johannsen S, Gierse RM, Krüger A, Edwards RL, Nanna V, Fontana A, Zhu D, Masini T, de Carvalho LP, Poizat M, Kieftenbelt B, Hodge DM, Alvarez S, Bunt D, Lacour A, Shams A, Meissner KA, de Souza EE, Dröge M, van Vliet B, den Hartog J, Hutter MC, Held J, Odom John AR, Wrenger C, Hirsch AKH. High Target Homology Does Not Guarantee Inhibition: Aminothiazoles Emerge as Inhibitors of Plasmodium falciparum. ACS Infect Dis 2024; 10:1000-1022. [PMID: 38367280 PMCID: PMC10928712 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.3c00670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2023] [Revised: 01/24/2024] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 02/19/2024]
Abstract
In this study, we identified three novel compound classes with potent activity against Plasmodium falciparum, the most dangerous human malarial parasite. Resistance of this pathogen to known drugs is increasing, and compounds with different modes of action are urgently needed. One promising drug target is the enzyme 1-deoxy-d-xylulose-5-phosphate synthase (DXPS) of the methylerythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathway for which we have previously identified three active compound classes against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The close structural similarities of the active sites of the DXPS enzymes of P. falciparum and M. tuberculosis prompted investigation of their antiparasitic action, all classes display good cell-based activity. Through structure-activity relationship studies, we increased their antimalarial potency and two classes also show good metabolic stability and low toxicity against human liver cells. The most active compound 1 inhibits the growth of blood-stage P. falciparum with an IC50 of 600 nM. The results from three different methods for target validation of compound 1 suggest no engagement of DXPS. All inhibitor classes are active against chloroquine-resistant strains, confirming a new mode of action that has to be further investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Johannsen
- Helmholtz
Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS) − Helmholtz
Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Campus Building E8.1, Saarbrücken 66123, Germany
- Department
of Pharmacy, Saarland University, Campus Building E8.1, Saarbrücken 66123, Germany
| | - Robin M. Gierse
- Helmholtz
Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS) − Helmholtz
Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Campus Building E8.1, Saarbrücken 66123, Germany
- Department
of Pharmacy, Saarland University, Campus Building E8.1, Saarbrücken 66123, Germany
- Stratingh
Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, Groningen 9747 AG, The Netherlands
| | - Arne Krüger
- Unit
for Drug Discovery, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes 1374, São Paulo-SP 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Rachel L. Edwards
- Department
of Pediatrics, Washington University School
of Medicine, Saint
Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Vittoria Nanna
- Helmholtz
Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS) − Helmholtz
Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Campus Building E8.1, Saarbrücken 66123, Germany
| | - Anna Fontana
- Helmholtz
Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS) − Helmholtz
Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Campus Building E8.1, Saarbrücken 66123, Germany
| | - Di Zhu
- Helmholtz
Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS) − Helmholtz
Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Campus Building E8.1, Saarbrücken 66123, Germany
- Stratingh
Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, Groningen 9747 AG, The Netherlands
| | - Tiziana Masini
- Stratingh
Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, Groningen 9747 AG, The Netherlands
| | | | - Mael Poizat
- Symeres, Kadijk 3, Groningen 9747
AT, The Netherlands
| | | | - Dana M. Hodge
- Department
of Pediatrics, Children’s Hospital
of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Sophie Alvarez
- Proteomics
& Metabolomics Facility, Center for Biotechnology, Department
of Agronomy and Horticulture, University
of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588, United States
| | - Daan Bunt
- Stratingh
Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, Groningen 9747 AG, The Netherlands
| | - Antoine Lacour
- Helmholtz
Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS) − Helmholtz
Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Campus Building E8.1, Saarbrücken 66123, Germany
- Department
of Pharmacy, Saarland University, Campus Building E8.1, Saarbrücken 66123, Germany
| | - Atanaz Shams
- Helmholtz
Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS) − Helmholtz
Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Campus Building E8.1, Saarbrücken 66123, Germany
- Department
of Pharmacy, Saarland University, Campus Building E8.1, Saarbrücken 66123, Germany
| | - Kamila Anna Meissner
- Unit
for Drug Discovery, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes 1374, São Paulo-SP 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Edmarcia Elisa de Souza
- Unit
for Drug Discovery, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes 1374, São Paulo-SP 05508-000, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Michael C. Hutter
- Center
for Bioinformatics, Saarland University, Campus Building E2.1, Saarbrücken 66123, Germany
| | - Jana Held
- Institute
of Tropical Medicine, University of Tübingen, Wilhelmstraße 27, Tübingen 72074, Germany
- German
Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Tübingen, Tübingen 72074, Germany
- Centre
de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné (CERMEL), B.P. 242 Lambaréné, Gabon
| | - Audrey R. Odom John
- Department
of Pediatrics, Children’s Hospital
of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Carsten Wrenger
- Unit
for Drug Discovery, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes 1374, São Paulo-SP 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Anna K. H. Hirsch
- Helmholtz
Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS) − Helmholtz
Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Campus Building E8.1, Saarbrücken 66123, Germany
- Department
of Pharmacy, Saarland University, Campus Building E8.1, Saarbrücken 66123, Germany
- Stratingh
Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, Groningen 9747 AG, The Netherlands
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2
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An Undefined Interaction between Polyamines and Heat Shock Proteins Leads to Cellular Protection in Plasmodium falciparum and Proliferating Cells in Various Organisms. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28041686. [PMID: 36838674 PMCID: PMC9958663 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28041686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Environmental stimuli can distress the internal reaction of cells and their normal function. To react promptly to sudden environmental changes, a cascade of heat shock proteins (Hsps) functions to protect and act as housekeepers inside the cells. In parallel to the heat shock response, the metabolic polyamine (PA) status changes. Here, we discuss possible ways of putative interactions between Hsps and polyamines in a wide lineage of eukaryotic model organisms with a particular focus on parasitic protozoa such as Plasmodium falciparum (P. falciparum). The supposed interaction between polyamines and Hsps may protect the parasite from the sudden change in temperature during transmission from the female Anopheles mosquito to a human host. Recent experiments performed with the spermidine mimetic inhibitor 15-deoxyspergualine in Plasmodium in vitro cultures show that the drug binds to the C-terminal EEVD motif of Hsp70. This leads to inhibition of protein biosynthesis caused by prevention of eIF5A2 phosphorylation and eukaryotic initiation factor 5A (eIF5A) modification. These observations provide further evidence that PAs are involved in the regulation of protein biosynthesis of Hsps to achieve a protective effect for the parasite during transmission.
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3
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Hoarau M, Suwanakitti N, Varatthan T, Thiabma R, Rattanajak R, Charoensetakul N, Redman EK, Khotavivattana T, Vilaivan T, Yuthavong Y, Kamchonwongpaisan S. Assay Development and Identification of the First Plasmodium falciparum 7,8-dihydro-6-hydroxymethylpterin-pyrophosphokinase Inhibitors. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 27:molecules27113515. [PMID: 35684452 PMCID: PMC9182141 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27113515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Revised: 05/23/2022] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
In the fight towards eradication of malaria, identifying compounds active against new drug targets constitutes a key approach. Plasmodium falciparum 7,8-dihydro-6-hydroxymethylpterin-pyrophosphokinase (PfHPPK) has been advanced as a promising target, as being part of the parasite essential folate biosynthesis pathway while having no orthologue in the human genome. However, no drug discovery efforts have been reported on this enzyme. In this study, we conducted a three-step screening of our in-house antifolate library against PfHPPK using a newly designed PfHPPK-GFP protein construct. Combining virtual screening, differential scanning fluorimetry and enzymatic assay, we identified 14 compounds active against PfHPPK. Compounds’ binding modes were investigated by molecular docking, suggesting competitive binding with the HMDP substrate. Cytotoxicity and in vitro ADME properties of hit compounds were also assessed, showing good metabolic stability and low toxicity. The most active compounds displayed low micromolar IC50 against drug-resistant parasites. The reported hit compounds constitute a good starting point for inhibitor development against PfHPPK, as an alternative approach to tackle the malaria parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Hoarau
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand; (N.S.); (T.V.); (R.T.); (R.R.); (N.C.); (Y.Y.); (S.K.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Nattida Suwanakitti
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand; (N.S.); (T.V.); (R.T.); (R.R.); (N.C.); (Y.Y.); (S.K.)
| | - Thaveechai Varatthan
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand; (N.S.); (T.V.); (R.T.); (R.R.); (N.C.); (Y.Y.); (S.K.)
| | - Ratthiya Thiabma
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand; (N.S.); (T.V.); (R.T.); (R.R.); (N.C.); (Y.Y.); (S.K.)
| | - Roonglawan Rattanajak
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand; (N.S.); (T.V.); (R.T.); (R.R.); (N.C.); (Y.Y.); (S.K.)
| | - Netnapa Charoensetakul
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand; (N.S.); (T.V.); (R.T.); (R.R.); (N.C.); (Y.Y.); (S.K.)
| | - Emily K. Redman
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; (E.K.R.); (T.V.)
| | - Tanatorn Khotavivattana
- Center of Excellence in Natural Products Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand;
| | - Tirayut Vilaivan
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; (E.K.R.); (T.V.)
| | - Yongyuth Yuthavong
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand; (N.S.); (T.V.); (R.T.); (R.R.); (N.C.); (Y.Y.); (S.K.)
| | - Sumalee Kamchonwongpaisan
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand; (N.S.); (T.V.); (R.T.); (R.R.); (N.C.); (Y.Y.); (S.K.)
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4
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Gierse RM, Oerlemans R, Reddem ER, Gawriljuk VO, Alhayek A, Baitinger D, Jakobi H, Laber B, Lange G, Hirsch AKH, Groves MR. First crystal structures of 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate synthase (DXPS) from Mycobacterium tuberculosis indicate a distinct mechanism of intermediate stabilization. Sci Rep 2022; 12:7221. [PMID: 35508530 PMCID: PMC9068908 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-11205-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 04/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of drug resistance by Mycobacterium tuberculosis and other pathogenic bacteria emphasizes the need for new antibiotics. Unlike animals, most bacteria synthesize isoprenoid precursors through the MEP pathway. 1-Deoxy-d-xylulose 5-phosphate synthase (DXPS) catalyzes the first reaction of the MEP pathway and is an attractive target for the development of new antibiotics. We report here the successful use of a loop truncation to crystallize and solve the first DXPS structures of a pathogen, namely M. tuberculosis (MtDXPS). The main difference found to other DXPS structures is in the active site where a highly coordinated water was found, showing a new mechanism for the enamine-intermediate stabilization. Unlike other DXPS structures, a “fork-like” motif could be identified in the enamine structure, using a different residue for the interaction with the cofactor, potentially leading to a decrease in the stability of the intermediate. In addition, electron density suggesting a phosphate group could be found close to the active site, provides new evidence for the D-GAP binding site. These results provide the opportunity to improve or develop new inhibitors specific for MtDXPS through structure-based drug design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin M Gierse
- Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS)-Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Campus Building E 8.1, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany.,Department of Pharmacy, Saarland University, Campus Building E8.1, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany.,Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Rick Oerlemans
- Department of Drug Design, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9700 AV, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Eswar R Reddem
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands.,Department of Drug Design, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9700 AV, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Victor O Gawriljuk
- Department of Drug Design, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9700 AV, Groningen, The Netherlands.,São Carlos Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo, Av. João Dagnone, 1100-Santa Angelina, São Carlos, SP, 13563-120, Brazil
| | - Alaa Alhayek
- Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS)-Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Campus Building E 8.1, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany.,Department of Pharmacy, Saarland University, Campus Building E8.1, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Dominik Baitinger
- Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS)-Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Campus Building E 8.1, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Harald Jakobi
- Research & Development Crop Science, Bayer AG, Industriepark Höchst, 65926, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Bernd Laber
- Research & Development Crop Science, Bayer AG, Industriepark Höchst, 65926, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Gudrun Lange
- Research & Development Crop Science, Bayer AG, Industriepark Höchst, 65926, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Anna K H Hirsch
- Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS)-Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Campus Building E 8.1, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany. .,Department of Pharmacy, Saarland University, Campus Building E8.1, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany. .,Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Matthew R Groves
- Department of Drug Design, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9700 AV, Groningen, The Netherlands.
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5
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Wang C, Krüger A, Du X, Wrenger C, Groves MR. Novel Highlight in Malarial Drug Discovery: Aspartate Transcarbamoylase. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:841833. [PMID: 35310840 PMCID: PMC8931299 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.841833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria remains one of the most prominent and dangerous tropical diseases. While artemisinin and analogs have been used as first-line drugs for the past decades, due to the high mutational rate and rapid adaptation to the environment of the parasite, it remains urgent to develop new antimalarials. The pyrimidine biosynthesis pathway plays an important role in cell growth and proliferation. Unlike human host cells, the malarial parasite lacks a functional pyrimidine salvage pathway, meaning that RNA and DNA synthesis is highly dependent on the de novo synthesis pathway. Thus, direct or indirect blockage of the pyrimidine biosynthesis pathway can be lethal to the parasite. Aspartate transcarbamoylase (ATCase), catalyzes the second step of the pyrimidine biosynthesis pathway, the condensation of L-aspartate and carbamoyl phosphate to form N-carbamoyl aspartate and inorganic phosphate, and has been demonstrated to be a promising target both for anti-malaria and anti-cancer drug development. This is highlighted by the discovery that at least one of the targets of Torin2 – a potent, yet unselective, antimalarial – is the activity of the parasite transcarbamoylase. Additionally, the recent discovery of an allosteric pocket of the human homology raises the intriguing possibility of species selective ATCase inhibitors. We recently exploited the available crystal structures of the malarial aspartate transcarbamoylase to perform a fragment-based screening to identify hits. In this review, we summarize studies on the structure of Plasmodium falciparum ATCase by focusing on an allosteric pocket that supports the catalytic mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Wang
- Department of Drug Design, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Arne Krüger
- Unit for Drug Discovery, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Xiaochen Du
- Department of Drug Design, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Carsten Wrenger
- Unit for Drug Discovery, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- *Correspondence: Matthew R. Groves, ; Carsten Wrenger,
| | - Matthew R. Groves
- Department of Drug Design, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
- *Correspondence: Matthew R. Groves, ; Carsten Wrenger,
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6
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Shahrear S, Afroj Zinnia M, Sany MRU, Islam ABMMK. Functional Analysis of Hypothetical Proteins of Vibrio parahaemolyticus Reveals the Presence of Virulence Factors and Growth-Related Enzymes With Therapeutic Potential. Bioinform Biol Insights 2022; 16:11779322221136002. [PMID: 36386863 PMCID: PMC9661560 DOI: 10.1177/11779322221136002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Vibrio parahaemolyticus, an aquatic pathogen, is a major concern in the shrimp aquaculture industry. Several strains of this pathogen are responsible for causing acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease as well as other serious illness, both of which result in severe economic losses. The genome sequence of two pathogenic strains of V. parahaemolyticus, MSR16 and MSR17, isolated from Bangladesh, have been reported to gain a better understanding of their diversity and virulence. However, the prevalence of hypothetical proteins (HPs) makes it challenging to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the pathogenesis of V. parahaemolyticus. The aim of the present study is to provide a functional annotation of the HPs to elucidate their role in pathogenesis employing several in silico tools. The exploration of protein domains and families, similarity searches against proteins with known function, gene ontology enrichment, along with protein-protein interaction analysis of the HPs led to the functional assignment with a high level of confidence for 656 proteins out of a pool of 2631 proteins. The in silico approach used in this study was important for accurately assigning function to HPs and inferring interactions with proteins with previously described functions. The HPs with function predicted were categorized into various groups such as enzymes involved in small-compound biosynthesis pathway, iron binding proteins, antibiotics resistance proteins, and other proteins. Several proteins with potential druggability were identified among them. In addition, the HPs were investigated in search of virulent factors, which led to the identification of proteins that have the potential to be exploited as vaccine candidate. The findings of the study will be effective in gaining a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms of bacterial pathogenesis. They may also provide an insight into the process of evaluating promising targets for the development of drugs and vaccines against V. parahaemolyticus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sazzad Shahrear
- Department of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | | | - Md. Rabi Us Sany
- Department of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh
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7
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Pina AF, Sousa SF, Cerqueira NMFSA. The Catalytic Mechanism of Pdx2 Glutaminase Driven by a Cys-His-Glu Triad: A Computational Study. Chembiochem 2021; 23:e202100555. [PMID: 34762772 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202100555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Revised: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The catalytic mechanism of Pdx2 was studied with atomic detail employing the computational ONIOM hybrid QM/MM methodology. Pdx2 employs a Cys-His-Glu catalytic triad to deaminate glutamine to glutamate and ammonia - the source of the nitrogen of pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP). This enzyme is, therefore, a rate-limiting step in the PLP biosynthetic pathway of Malaria and Tuberculosis pathogens that rely on this mechanism to obtain PLP. For this reason, Pdx2 is considered a novel and promising drug target to treat these diseases. The results obtained show that the catalytic mechanism of Pdx2 occurs in six steps that can be divided into four stages: (i) activation of Cys87 , (ii) deamination of glutamine with the formation of the glutamyl-thioester intermediate, (iii) hydrolysis of the formed intermediate, and (iv) enzymatic turnover. The kinetic data available in the literature (19.1-19.5 kcal mol-1 ) agree very well with the calculated free energy barrier of the hydrolytic step (18.2 kcal.mol-11 ), which is the rate-limiting step of the catalytic process when substrate is readily available in the active site. This catalytic mechanism differs from other known amidases in three main points: i) it requires the activation of the nucleophile Cys87 to a thiolate; ii) the hydrolysis occurs in a single step and therefore does not require the formation of a second tetrahedral reaction intermediate, as it is proposed, and iii) Glu198 does not have a direct role in the catalytic process. Together, these results can be used for the synthesis of new transition state analogue inhibitors capable of inhibiting Pdx2 and impair diseases like Malaria and Tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- André F Pina
- Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4200-319, Porto, Portugal.,UCIBIO - Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, BioSIM - Department of Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4200-319, Porto, Portugal
| | - Sérgio F Sousa
- Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4200-319, Porto, Portugal.,UCIBIO - Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, BioSIM - Department of Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4200-319, Porto, Portugal
| | - Nuno M F S A Cerqueira
- Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4200-319, Porto, Portugal.,UCIBIO - Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, BioSIM - Department of Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4200-319, Porto, Portugal
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8
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Prior KF, Middleton B, Owolabi AT, Westwood ML, Holland J, O'Donnell AJ, Blackman MJ, Skene DJ, Reece SE. Synchrony between daily rhythms of malaria parasites and hosts is driven by an essential amino acid. Wellcome Open Res 2021; 6:186. [PMID: 34805551 PMCID: PMC8577053.2 DOI: 10.12688/wellcomeopenres.16894.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Rapid asexual replication of blood stage malaria parasites is responsible for the severity of disease symptoms and fuels the production of transmission forms. Here, we demonstrate that a Plasmodium chabaudi's schedule for asexual replication can be orchestrated by isoleucine, a metabolite provided to the parasite in a periodic manner due to the host's rhythmic intake of food. Methods: We infect female C57BL/6 and Per1/2-null mice which have a disrupted canonical (transcription translation feedback loop, TTFL) clock with 1×10 5 red blood cells containing P. chabaudi (DK genotype). We perturb the timing of rhythms in asexual replication and host feeding-fasting cycles to identify nutrients with rhythms that match all combinations of host and parasite rhythms. We then test whether perturbing the availability of the best candidate nutrient in vitro changes the schedule for asexual development. Results: Our large-scale metabolomics experiment and follow up experiments reveal that only one metabolite - the amino acid isoleucine - fits criteria for a time-of-day cue used by parasites to set the schedule for replication. The response to isoleucine is a parasite strategy rather than solely the consequences of a constraint imposed by host rhythms, because unlike when parasites are deprived of other essential nutrients, they suffer no apparent costs from isoleucine withdrawal. Conclusions: Overall, our data suggest parasites can use the daily rhythmicity of blood-isoleucine concentration to synchronise asexual development with the availability of isoleucine, and potentially other resources, that arrive in the blood in a periodic manner due to the host's daily feeding-fasting cycle. Identifying both how and why parasites keep time opens avenues for interventions; interfering with the parasite's time-keeping mechanism may stall replication, increasing the efficacy of drugs and immune responses, and could also prevent parasites from entering dormancy to tolerate drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberley F. Prior
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK,Institute of Immunology & Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK,
| | - Benita Middleton
- School of Biosciences and Medicine, University of Surrey, Surrey, UK
| | - Alíz T.Y. Owolabi
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK,Institute of Immunology & Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Mary L. Westwood
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK,Institute of Immunology & Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Jacob Holland
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK,Institute of Immunology & Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Aidan J. O'Donnell
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK,Institute of Immunology & Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Michael J. Blackman
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, Francis Crick Institute, London, UK,Faculty of Infectious Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Debra J. Skene
- School of Biosciences and Medicine, University of Surrey, Surrey, UK
| | - Sarah E. Reece
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK,Institute of Immunology & Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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9
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Prior KF, Middleton B, Owolabi AT, Westwood ML, Holland J, O'Donnell AJ, Blackman MJ, Skene DJ, Reece SE. Synchrony between daily rhythms of malaria parasites and hosts is driven by an essential amino acid. Wellcome Open Res 2021; 6:186. [PMID: 34805551 PMCID: PMC8577053 DOI: 10.12688/wellcomeopenres.16894.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Rapid asexual replication of blood stage malaria parasites is responsible for the severity of disease symptoms and fuels the production of transmission forms. Here, we demonstrate that the Plasmodium chabaudi's schedule for asexual replication can be orchestrated by isoleucine, a metabolite provided to the parasite in periodic manner due to the host's rhythmic intake of food. Methods: We infect female C57BL/6 and Per1/2-null TTFL clock-disrupted mice with 1×10 5 red blood cells containing P. chabaudi (DK genotype). We perturb the timing of rhythms in asexual replication and host feeding-fasting cycles to identify nutrients with rhythms that match all combinations of host and parasite rhythms. We then test whether perturbing the availability of the best candidate nutrient in vitro elicits changes their schedule for asexual development. Results: Our large-scale metabolomics experiment and follow up experiments reveal that only one metabolite - the amino acid isoleucine - fits criteria for a time-of-day cue used by parasites to set the schedule for replication. The response to isoleucine is a parasite strategy rather than solely the consequences of a constraint imposed by host rhythms, because unlike when parasites are deprived of other essential nutrients, they suffer no apparent costs from isoleucine withdrawal. Conclusions: Overall, our data suggest parasites can use the daily rhythmicity of blood-isoleucine concentration to synchronise asexual development with the availability of isoleucine, and potentially other resources, that arrive in the blood in a periodic manner due to the host's daily feeding-fasting cycle. Identifying both how and why parasites keep time opens avenues for interventions; interfering with the parasite's time-keeping mechanism may stall replication, increasing the efficacy of drugs and immune responses, and could also prevent parasites from entering dormancy to tolerate drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberley F. Prior
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK,Institute of Immunology & Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK,
| | - Benita Middleton
- School of Biosciences and Medicine, University of Surrey, Surrey, UK
| | - Alíz T.Y. Owolabi
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK,Institute of Immunology & Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Mary L. Westwood
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK,Institute of Immunology & Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Jacob Holland
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK,Institute of Immunology & Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Aidan J. O'Donnell
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK,Institute of Immunology & Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Michael J. Blackman
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, Francis Crick Institute, London, UK,Faculty of Infectious Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Debra J. Skene
- School of Biosciences and Medicine, University of Surrey, Surrey, UK
| | - Sarah E. Reece
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK,Institute of Immunology & Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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10
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Barra ALC, Ullah N, Morão LG, Wrenger C, Betzel C, Nascimento AS. Structural Dynamics and Perspectives of Vitamin B6 Biosynthesis Enzymes in Plasmodium: Advances and Open Questions. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:688380. [PMID: 34327152 PMCID: PMC8313854 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.688380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria is still today one of the most concerning diseases, with 219 million infections in 2019, most of them in Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America, causing approx. 409,000 deaths per year. Despite the tremendous advances in malaria treatment and prevention, there is still no vaccine for this disease yet available and the increasing parasite resistance to already existing drugs is becoming an alarming issue globally. In this context, several potential targets for the development of new drug candidates have been proposed and, among those, the de novo biosynthesis pathway for the B6 vitamin was identified to be a promising candidate. The reason behind its significance is the absence of the pathway in humans and its essential presence in the metabolism of major pathogenic organisms. The pathway consists of two enzymes i.e. Pdx1 (PLP synthase domain) and Pdx2 (glutaminase domain), the last constituting a transient and dynamic complex with Pdx1 as the prime player and harboring the catalytic center. In this review, we discuss the structural biology of Pdx1 and Pdx2, together with and the understanding of the PLP biosynthesis provided by the crystallographic data. We also highlight the existing evidence of the effect of PLP synthesis inhibition on parasite proliferation. The existing data provide a flourishing environment for the structure-based design and optimization of new substrate analogs that could serve as inhibitors or even suicide inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angélica Luana C Barra
- Pólo TerRa, São Carlos Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil.,Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Laboratory for Structural Biology of Infection and Inflammation, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Najeeb Ullah
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Laboratory for Structural Biology of Infection and Inflammation, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Luana G Morão
- Pólo TerRa, São Carlos Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Carsten Wrenger
- Unit for Drug Discovery, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Christian Betzel
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Laboratory for Structural Biology of Infection and Inflammation, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
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11
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Rout UK, Sanket AS, Sisodia BS, Mohapatra PK, Pati S, Kant R, Dwivedi GR. A Comparative Review on Current and Future Drug Targets Against Bacteria & Malaria. Curr Drug Targets 2021; 21:736-775. [PMID: 31995004 DOI: 10.2174/1389450121666200129103618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2019] [Revised: 12/13/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Long before the discovery of drugs like 'antibiotic and anti-parasitic drugs', the infectious diseases caused by pathogenic bacteria and parasites remain as one of the major causes of morbidity and mortality in developing and underdeveloped countries. The phenomenon by which the organism exerts resistance against two or more structurally unrelated drugs is called multidrug resistance (MDR) and its emergence has further complicated the treatment scenario of infectious diseases. Resistance towards the available set of treatment options and poor pipeline of novel drug development puts an alarming situation. A universal goal in the post-genomic era is to identify novel targets/drugs for various life-threatening diseases caused by such pathogens. This review is conceptualized in the backdrop of drug resistance in two major pathogens i.e. "Pseudomonas aeruginosa" and "Plasmodium falciparum". In this review, the available targets and key mechanisms of resistance of these pathogens have been discussed in detail. An attempt has also been made to analyze the common drug targets of bacteria and malaria parasite to overcome the current drug resistance scenario. The solution is also hypothesized in terms of a present pipeline of drugs and efforts made by scientific community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Usha K Rout
- Microbiology Department, ICMR-Regional Medical Research Centre, Bhubaneswar-751023, India
| | | | - Brijesh S Sisodia
- Regional Ayurveda Research Institute for Drug Development, Gwalior-474 009, India
| | | | - Sanghamitra Pati
- Microbiology Department, ICMR-Regional Medical Research Centre, Bhubaneswar-751023, India
| | - Rajni Kant
- ICMR-Regional Medical Research Centre, Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh- 273013, India
| | - Gaurav R Dwivedi
- ICMR-Regional Medical Research Centre, Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh- 273013, India
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12
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Gierse RM, Reddem ER, Alhayek A, Baitinger D, Hamid Z, Jakobi H, Laber B, Lange G, Hirsch AKH, Groves MR. Identification of a 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate synthase (DXS) mutant with improved crystallographic properties. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2021; 539:42-47. [PMID: 33421767 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2020.12.069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Revised: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
In this report, we describe a truncated Deinococcus radiodurans 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate synthase (DXS) protein that retains enzymatic activity, while slowing protein degradation and showing improved crystallization properties. With modern drug-design approaches relying heavily on the elucidation of atomic interactions of potential new drugs with their targets, the need for co-crystal structures with the compounds of interest is high. DXS itself is a promising drug target, as it catalyzes the first reaction in the 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate (MEP)-pathway for the biosynthesis of the universal precursors of terpenes, which are essential secondary metabolites. In contrast to many bacteria and pathogens, which employ the MEP pathway, mammals use the distinct mevalonate-pathway for the biosynthesis of these precursors, which makes all enzymes of the MEP-pathway potential new targets for the development of anti-infectives. However, crystallization of DXS has proven to be challenging: while the first X-ray structures from Escherichia coli and D. radiodurans were solved in 2004, since then only two additions have been made in 2019 that were obtained under anoxic conditions. The presented site of truncation can potentially also be transferred to other homologues, opening up the possibility for the determination of crystal structures from pathogenic species, which until now could not be crystallized. This manuscript also provides a further example that truncation of a variable region of a protein can lead to improved structural data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin M Gierse
- Department for Drug Design and Optimization, Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research (HIPS) - Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Campus Building E 8.1, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany; Department of Pharmacy, Saarland University, Campus Building E8.1, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany; Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747, AG Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Eswar R Reddem
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747, AG Groningen, Netherlands; Pharmacy Department, Drug Design Group, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9700, AV Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Alaa Alhayek
- Department for Drug Design and Optimization, Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research (HIPS) - Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Campus Building E 8.1, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany; Department of Pharmacy, Saarland University, Campus Building E8.1, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Dominik Baitinger
- Department for Drug Design and Optimization, Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research (HIPS) - Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Campus Building E 8.1, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Zhoor Hamid
- Department for Drug Design and Optimization, Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research (HIPS) - Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Campus Building E 8.1, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany; Department of Pharmacy, Saarland University, Campus Building E8.1, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Harald Jakobi
- Research & Development Crop Science, Bayer AG, Industriepark Höchst, 65926, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Bernd Laber
- Research & Development Crop Science, Bayer AG, Industriepark Höchst, 65926, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Gudrun Lange
- Research & Development Crop Science, Bayer AG, Industriepark Höchst, 65926, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Anna K H Hirsch
- Department for Drug Design and Optimization, Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research (HIPS) - Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Campus Building E 8.1, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany; Department of Pharmacy, Saarland University, Campus Building E8.1, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany; Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747, AG Groningen, Netherlands.
| | - Matthew R Groves
- Pharmacy Department, Drug Design Group, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9700, AV Groningen, Netherlands.
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13
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Derilus D, Rahman MZ, Serrano AE, Massey SE. Proteome size reduction in Apicomplexans is linked with loss of DNA repair and host redundant pathways. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2020; 87:104642. [PMID: 33296723 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2020.104642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2020] [Revised: 11/07/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Apicomplexans are alveolate parasites which include Plasmodium falciparum, the main cause of malaria, one of the world's biggest killers from infectious disease. Apicomplexans are characterized by a reduction in proteome size, which appears to result from metabolic and functional simplification, commensurate with their parasitic lifestyle. However, other factors may also help to explain gene loss such as population bottlenecks experienced during transmission, and the effect of reducing the overall genomic information content. The latter constitutes an 'informational constraint', which is proposed to exert a selective pressure to evolve and maintain genes involved in informational fidelity and error correction, proportional to the quantity of information in the genome (which approximates to proteome size). The dynamics of gene loss was examined in 41 Apicomplexan genomes using orthogroup analysis. We show that loss of genes involved in amino acid metabolism and steroid biosynthesis can be explained by metabolic redundancy with the host. We also show that there is a marked tendency to lose DNA repair genes as proteome size is reduced. This may be explained by a reduction in size of the informational constraint and can help to explain elevated mutation rates in pathogens with reduced genome size. Multiple Sequentially Markovian Coalescent (MSMC) analysis indicates a recent bottleneck, consistent with predictions generated using allele-based population genetics approaches, implying that relaxed selection pressure due to reduced population size might have contributed to gene loss. However, the non-randomness of pathways that are lost challenges this scenario. Lastly, we identify unique orthogroups in malaria-causing Plasmodium species that infect humans, with a high proportion of membrane associated proteins. Thus, orthogroup analysis appears useful for identifying novel candidate pathogenic factors in parasites, when there is a wide sample of genomes available.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Derilus
- Environmental Sciences Department, University of Puerto Rico-Rio Piedras, United States of America
| | - M Z Rahman
- Biology Department, University of Puerto Rico-Rio Piedras, United States of America
| | - A E Serrano
- Department of Microbiology, University of Puerto Rico-School of Medicine, Medical Sciences, United States of America
| | - S E Massey
- Biology Department, University of Puerto Rico-Rio Piedras, United States of America.
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14
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Bosch SS, Lunev S, Batista FA, Linzke M, Kronenberger T, Dömling ASS, Groves MR, Wrenger C. Molecular Target Validation of Aspartate Transcarbamoylase from Plasmodium falciparum by Torin 2. ACS Infect Dis 2020; 6:986-999. [PMID: 32129597 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.9b00411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Malaria is a tropical disease that kills about half a million people around the world annually. Enzymatic reactions within pyrimidine biosynthesis have been proven to be essential for Plasmodium proliferation. Here we report on the essentiality of the second enzymatic step of the pyrimidine biosynthesis pathway, catalyzed by aspartate transcarbamoylase (ATC). Crystallization experiments using a double mutant ofPlasmodium falciparum ATC (PfATC) revealed the importance of the mutated residues for enzyme catalysis. Subsequently, this mutant was employed in protein interference assays (PIAs), which resulted in inhibition of parasite proliferation when parasites transfected with the double mutant were cultivated in medium lacking an excess of nutrients, including aspartate. Addition of 5 or 10 mg/L of aspartate to the minimal medium restored the parasites' normal growth rate. In vitro and whole-cell assays in the presence of the compound Torin 2 showed inhibition of specific activity and parasite growth, respectively. In silico analyses revealed the potential binding mode of Torin 2 to PfATC. Furthermore, a transgenic ATC-overexpressing cell line exhibited a 10-fold increased tolerance to Torin 2 compared with control cultures. Taken together, our results confirm the antimalarial activity of Torin 2, suggesting PfATC as a target of this drug and a promising target for the development of novel antimalarials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soraya S. Bosch
- Unit for Drug Discovery, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, Avenida Professor Lineu Prestes 1374, 05508-000 São Paulo-SP, Brazil
- Structural Biology Unit, XB20 Drug Design, Department of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9700 AD Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Sergey Lunev
- Structural Biology Unit, XB20 Drug Design, Department of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9700 AD Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Fernando A. Batista
- Structural Biology Unit, XB20 Drug Design, Department of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9700 AD Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Marleen Linzke
- Unit for Drug Discovery, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, Avenida Professor Lineu Prestes 1374, 05508-000 São Paulo-SP, Brazil
| | - Thales Kronenberger
- Department of Internal Medicine VIII, University Hospital Tübingen, Otfried-Müller-Strasse 14, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Alexander S. S. Dömling
- Structural Biology Unit, XB20 Drug Design, Department of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9700 AD Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Matthew R. Groves
- Structural Biology Unit, XB20 Drug Design, Department of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9700 AD Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Carsten Wrenger
- Unit for Drug Discovery, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, Avenida Professor Lineu Prestes 1374, 05508-000 São Paulo-SP, Brazil
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15
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Krishnan A, Kloehn J, Lunghi M, Soldati-Favre D. Vitamin and cofactor acquisition in apicomplexans: Synthesis versus salvage. J Biol Chem 2020; 295:701-714. [PMID: 31767680 PMCID: PMC6970920 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.aw119.008150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The Apicomplexa phylum comprises diverse parasitic organisms that have evolved from a free-living ancestor. These obligate intracellular parasites exhibit versatile metabolic capabilities reflecting their capacity to survive and grow in different hosts and varying niches. Determined by nutrient availability, they either use their biosynthesis machineries or largely depend on their host for metabolite acquisition. Because vitamins cannot be synthesized by the mammalian host, the enzymes required for their synthesis in apicomplexan parasites represent a large repertoire of potential therapeutic targets. Here, we review recent advances in metabolic reconstruction and functional studies coupled to metabolomics that unravel the interplay between biosynthesis and salvage of vitamins and cofactors in apicomplexans. A particular emphasis is placed on Toxoplasma gondii, during both its acute and latent stages of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aarti Krishnan
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva CMU, 1 Rue Michel-Servet, 1211 Geneva 4 Switzerland
| | - Joachim Kloehn
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva CMU, 1 Rue Michel-Servet, 1211 Geneva 4 Switzerland
| | - Matteo Lunghi
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva CMU, 1 Rue Michel-Servet, 1211 Geneva 4 Switzerland
| | - Dominique Soldati-Favre
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva CMU, 1 Rue Michel-Servet, 1211 Geneva 4 Switzerland
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16
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Krishnan A, Kloehn J, Lunghi M, Soldati-Favre D. Vitamin and cofactor acquisition in apicomplexans: Synthesis versus salvage. J Biol Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(17)49928-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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17
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Handa S, Dempsey DR, Ramamoorthy D, Cook N, Guida WC, Spradling TJ, White JK, Woodcock HL, Merkler DJ. Mechanistic Studies of 1-Deoxy-D-Xylulose-5-Phosphate Synthase from Deinococcus radiodurans. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 4. [PMID: 29552677 PMCID: PMC5851014 DOI: 10.21767/2471-8084.100051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The non-mevalonate dependent (NMVA) pathway for the biosynthesis of isopentenyl pyrophosphate and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate is the sole source of these terpenoids for the production of isoprenoids in the apicomplexan parasites, in many eubacteria, and in plants. The absence of this pathway in higher organisms has opened a new platform for the development of novel antibiotics and anti-malarials. The enzyme catalyzing the first step of the NMVA pathway is 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate synthase (DXPS). DXPS catalyzes the thiamine pyrophosphate- and Mg (II)-dependent conjugation of pyruvate and D-glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate to form 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate and CO2. The kinetic mechanism of DXPS from Deinococcus radiodurans most consistent with our data is random sequential as shown using a combination of kinetic analysis and product and dead-end inhibition studies. The role of active site amino acids, identified by sequence alignment to other DXPS proteins, was probed by constructing and analyzing the catalytic efficacy of a set of targeted site-directed mutants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumit Handa
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Daniel R Dempsey
- Departments of Medicine, Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, UK
| | | | - Nanci Cook
- Department of Chemistry, University of South Florida, USA
| | - Wayne C Guida
- Department of Chemistry, University of South Florida, USA
| | | | - Justin K White
- Department of Chemistry, University of South Florida, USA
| | - H Lee Woodcock
- Department of Chemistry, University of South Florida, USA
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18
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Gazanion E, Vergnes B. Protozoan Parasite Auxotrophies and Metabolic Dependencies. EXPERIENTIA SUPPLEMENTUM (2012) 2018; 109:351-375. [PMID: 30535605 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-74932-7_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Diseases caused by protozoan parasites have a major impact on world health. These early branching eukaryotes cause significant morbidity and mortality in humans and livestock. During evolution, protozoan parasites have evolved toward complex life cycles in multiple host organisms with different nutritional resources. The conservation of functional metabolic pathways required for these successive environments is therefore a prerequisite for parasitic lifestyle. Nevertheless, parasitism drives genome evolution toward gene loss and metabolic dependencies (including strict auxotrophy), especially for obligatory intracellular parasites. In this chapter, we will compare and contrast how protozoan parasites have perfected this metabolic adaptation by focusing on specific auxotrophic pathways and scavenging strategies used by clinically relevant apicomplexan and trypanosomatid parasites to access host's nutritional resources. We will further see how these metabolic dependencies have in turn been exploited for therapeutic purposes against these human pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elodie Gazanion
- MIVEGEC, IRD, CNRS, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Baptiste Vergnes
- MIVEGEC, IRD, CNRS, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France.
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19
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Sharma D, Soni R, Rai P, Sharma B, Bhatt TK. Relict plastidic metabolic process as a potential therapeutic target. Drug Discov Today 2017; 23:134-140. [PMID: 28987288 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2017.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2016] [Revised: 09/03/2017] [Accepted: 09/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The alignment of the evolutionary history of parasites with that of plants provides a different panorama in the drug development process. The housing of different metabolic processes, essential for parasite survival, adds to the indispensability of the apicoplast. The different pathways responsible for fueling the apicoplast and parasite offer a myriad of proteins responsible for the apicoplast function. The studies emphasizing the target-based approaches might help in the discovery of antimalarials. The different putative drug targets and their roles are highlighted. In addition, the origin of the apicoplast and metabolic processes are reviewed and the different drugs acting upon the enzymes of the apicoplast are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Drista Sharma
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, Rajasthan 305801, India
| | - Rani Soni
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, Rajasthan 305801, India
| | - Praveen Rai
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, Rajasthan 305801, India
| | - Bhaskar Sharma
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, Rajasthan 305801, India
| | - Tarun Kumar Bhatt
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, Rajasthan 305801, India.
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20
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Sun MG, Huang Y, Xu YH, Cao YX. Efficacy of vitamin B complex as an adjuvant therapy for the treatment of complicated vulvovaginal candidiasis: An in vivo and in vitro study. Biomed Pharmacother 2017; 88:770-777. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2017.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2016] [Revised: 12/20/2016] [Accepted: 01/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
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21
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Isolation, characterization, interaction of a thiazolekinase (Plasmodium falciparum) with silver nanoparticles. Int J Biol Macromol 2015; 79:644-53. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2015.05.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2014] [Revised: 05/22/2015] [Accepted: 05/23/2015] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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22
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Fatty acid metabolism in the Plasmodium apicoplast: Drugs, doubts and knockouts. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2015; 199:34-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2015.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2015] [Revised: 03/16/2015] [Accepted: 03/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Kronenberger T, Lunev S, Wrenger C, Groves MR. Purification, crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction analysis of pyridoxal kinase from Plasmodium falciparum (PfPdxK). ACTA CRYSTALLOGRAPHICA SECTION F-STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY COMMUNICATIONS 2014; 70:1550-5. [PMID: 25372829 DOI: 10.1107/s2053230x14019864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2014] [Accepted: 09/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Pyridoxal kinases (PdxK) catalyze the phosphorylation of vitamin B6 precursors. Thus, these enzymes are an essential part of many metabolic processes in all organisms. The protozoan parasite Plasmodium falciparum (the main causative agent of Malaria tropica) possesses a unique de novo B6-biosynthesis pathway in addition to a interconversion pathway based on the activity of plasmodial PdxK (PfPdxK). The role of PdxK in B6 salvage has prompted previous authors to suggest PdxK as a promising target for structure-based antimalarial drug design. Here, the expression, purification, crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction analysis of PfPdxK are reported. PfPdxK crystals have been grown in space group P2₁, with unit-cell parameters a=52.7, b=62.0, c=93.7 Å, β=95°. A data set has been collected to 2 Å resolution and an initial molecular-replacement solution is described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thales Kronenberger
- Unit for Drug Discovery, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Saõ Paulo, Avenida Professor Lineu Prestes 1374, Saõ Paulo-SP 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Sergey Lunev
- Department of Drug Design, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy (GRIP), Rijksuniversiteit Groningen (RUG), Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Carsten Wrenger
- Unit for Drug Discovery, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Saõ Paulo, Avenida Professor Lineu Prestes 1374, Saõ Paulo-SP 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Matthew R Groves
- Department of Drug Design, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy (GRIP), Rijksuniversiteit Groningen (RUG), Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
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Brokamp R, Bergmann B, Müller IB, Bienz S. Stereoselective preparation of pyridoxal 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline derivatives and the influence of their absolute and relative configuration on the proliferation of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Bioorg Med Chem 2014; 22:1832-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2014.01.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2013] [Revised: 01/30/2014] [Accepted: 01/30/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Vitamin B6-dependent enzymes in the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum: a druggable target? BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:108516. [PMID: 24524072 PMCID: PMC3912857 DOI: 10.1155/2014/108516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2013] [Revised: 10/24/2013] [Accepted: 11/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Malaria is a deadly infectious disease which affects millions of people each year in tropical regions. There is no effective vaccine available and the treatment is based on drugs which are currently facing an emergence of drug resistance and in this sense the search for new drug targets is indispensable. It is well established that vitamin biosynthetic pathways, such as the vitamin B6 de novo synthesis present in Plasmodium, are excellent drug targets. The active form of vitamin B6, pyridoxal 5-phosphate, is, besides its antioxidative properties, a cofactor for a variety of essential enzymes present in the malaria parasite which includes the ornithine decarboxylase (ODC, synthesis of polyamines), the aspartate aminotransferase (AspAT, involved in the protein biosynthesis), and the serine hydroxymethyltransferase (SHMT, a key enzyme within the folate metabolism).
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26
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Chemical and genetic validation of thiamine utilization as an antimalarial drug target. Nat Commun 2013; 4:2060. [PMID: 23804074 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms3060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2013] [Accepted: 05/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Thiamine is metabolized into an essential cofactor for several enzymes. Here we show that oxythiamine, a thiamine analog, inhibits proliferation of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum in vitro via a thiamine-related pathway and significantly reduces parasite growth in a mouse malaria model. Overexpression of thiamine pyrophosphokinase (the enzyme that converts thiamine into its active form, thiamine pyrophosphate) hypersensitizes parasites to oxythiamine by up to 1,700-fold, consistent with oxythiamine being a substrate for thiamine pyrophosphokinase and its conversion into an antimetabolite. We show that parasites overexpressing the thiamine pyrophosphate-dependent enzymes oxoglutarate dehydrogenase and pyruvate dehydrogenase are up to 15-fold more resistant to oxythiamine, consistent with the antimetabolite inactivating thiamine pyrophosphate-dependent enzymes. Our studies therefore validate thiamine utilization as an antimalarial drug target and demonstrate that a single antimalarial can simultaneously target several enzymes located within distinct organelles.
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27
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Targeting the vitamin biosynthesis pathways for the treatment of malaria. Future Med Chem 2013; 5:769-79. [PMID: 23651091 DOI: 10.4155/fmc.13.43] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The most severe form of malaria is Malaria tropica, caused by Plasmodium falciparum. There are more than 1 billion people that are exposed to malaria parasites leading to more than 500,000 deaths annually. Vaccines are not available and the increasing drug resistance of the parasite prioritizes the need for novel drug targets and chemotherapeutics, which should be ideally designed to target selectively the parasite. In this sense, parasite-specific pathways, such as the vitamin biosyntheses, represent perfect drug-target characteristics because they are absent in humans. In the past, the vitamin B9 (folate) metabolism has been exploited by antifolates to treat infections caused by malaria parasites. Recently, two further vitamin biosynthesis pathways - for the vitamins B6 (pyridoxine) and B1 (thiamine) - have been identified in Plasmodium and analyzed for their suitability to discover new drugs. In this review, the current status of the druggability of plasmodial vitamin biosynthesis pathways is summarized.
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Completing the folate biosynthesis pathway in Plasmodium falciparum: p-aminobenzoate is produced by a highly divergent promiscuous aminodeoxychorismate lyase. Biochem J 2013; 455:149-55. [DOI: 10.1042/bj20130896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
We identified the aminodeoxychorismate lyase from Plasmodium falciparum. This enzyme participates in the biosynthesis of folate and could be a new target for antimalarial therapy. The enzyme has little similarity to its bacterial counterparts and shows a minor D-amino acid transaminase activity.
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Chamlian M, Bastos EL, Maciel C, Capurro ML, Miranda A, Silva AF, Torres MDT, Oliveira VX. A study of the anti-plasmodium activity of angiotensin II analogs. J Pept Sci 2013; 19:575-80. [DOI: 10.1002/psc.2534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2013] [Revised: 06/06/2013] [Accepted: 06/10/2013] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mayra Chamlian
- Centro de Ciências Naturais e Humanas; Universidade Federal do ABC; Santo André SP Brazil
| | - Erick L. Bastos
- Departamento de Química Fundamental; Universidade de São Paulo, Instituto de Química; São Paulo SP Brazil
| | - Ceres Maciel
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas; Universidade de São Paulo; São Paulo SP Brazil
| | - Margareth L. Capurro
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas; Universidade de São Paulo; São Paulo SP Brazil
| | - Antonio Miranda
- Departamento de Biofísica; Universidade Federal de São Paulo; São Paulo SP Brazil
| | - Adriana F. Silva
- Centro de Ciências Naturais e Humanas; Universidade Federal do ABC; Santo André SP Brazil
| | - Marcelo Der T. Torres
- Centro de Ciências Naturais e Humanas; Universidade Federal do ABC; Santo André SP Brazil
| | - Vani X. Oliveira
- Centro de Ciências Naturais e Humanas; Universidade Federal do ABC; Santo André SP Brazil
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30
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Folate metabolism in human malaria parasites—75 years on. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2013; 188:63-77. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2013.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2012] [Revised: 02/15/2013] [Accepted: 02/19/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Exploring inhibition of Pdx1, a component of the PLP synthase complex of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Biochem J 2013; 449:175-87. [PMID: 23039077 DOI: 10.1042/bj20120925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Malaria tropica is a devastating infectious disease caused by Plasmodium falciparum. This parasite synthesizes vitamin B6 de novo via the PLP (pyridoxal 5'-phosphate) synthase enzymatic complex consisting of PfPdx1 and PfPdx2 proteins. Biosynthesis of PLP is largely performed by PfPdx1, ammonia provided by PfPdx2 subunits is condensed together with R5P (D-ribose 5-phosphate) and G3P (DL-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate). PfPdx1 accommodates both the R5P and G3P substrates and intricately co-ordinates the reaction mechanism, which is composed of a series of imine bond formations, leading to the production of PLP. We demonstrate that E4P (D-erythrose 4-phosphate) inhibits PfPdx1 in a dose-dependent manner. We propose that the acyclic phospho-sugar E4P, with a C1 aldehyde group similar to acyclic R5P, could interfere with R5P imine bond formations in the PfPdx1 reaction mechanism. Molecular docking and subsequent screening identified the E4P hydrazide analogue 4PEHz (4-phospho-D-erythronhydrazide), which selectively inhibited PfPdx1 with an IC50 of 43 μM. PfPdx1 contained in the heteromeric PLP synthase complex was shown to be more sensitive to 4PEHz and was inhibited with an IC50 of 16 μM. Moreover, the compound had an IC50 value of 10 μM against cultured P. falciparum intraerythrocytic parasites. To analyse further the selectivity of 4PEHz, transgenic cell lines overexpressing PfPdx1 and PfPdx2 showed that additional copies of the protein complex conferred protection against 4PEHz, indicating that the PLP synthase is directly affected by 4PEHz in vivo. These PfPdx1 inhibitors represent novel lead scaffolds which are capable of targeting PLP biosynthesis, and we propose this as a viable strategy for the development of new therapeutics against malaria.
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Bánky D, Iván G, Grolmusz V. Equal opportunity for low-degree network nodes: a PageRank-based method for protein target identification in metabolic graphs. PLoS One 2013; 8:e54204. [PMID: 23382878 PMCID: PMC3558500 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0054204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2011] [Accepted: 12/11/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Biological network data, such as metabolic-, signaling- or physical interaction graphs of proteins are increasingly available in public repositories for important species. Tools for the quantitative analysis of these networks are being developed today. Protein network-based drug target identification methods usually return protein hubs with large degrees in the networks as potentially important targets. Some known, important protein targets, however, are not hubs at all, and perturbing protein hubs in these networks may have several unwanted physiological effects, due to their interaction with numerous partners. Here, we show a novel method applicable in networks with directed edges (such as metabolic networks) that compensates for the low degree (non-hub) vertices in the network, and identifies important nodes, regardless of their hub properties. Our method computes the PageRank for the nodes of the network, and divides the PageRank by the in-degree (i.e., the number of incoming edges) of the node. This quotient is the same in all nodes in an undirected graph (even for large- and low-degree nodes, that is, for hubs and non-hubs as well), but may differ significantly from node to node in directed graphs. We suggest to assign importance to non-hub nodes with large PageRank/in-degree quotient. Consequently, our method gives high scores to nodes with large PageRank, relative to their degrees: therefore non-hub important nodes can easily be identified in large networks. We demonstrate that these relatively high PageRank scores have biological relevance: the method correctly finds numerous already validated drug targets in distinct organisms (Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Plasmodium falciparum and MRSA Staphylococcus aureus), and consequently, it may suggest new possible protein targets as well. Additionally, our scoring method was not chosen arbitrarily: its value for all nodes of all undirected graphs is constant; therefore its high value captures importance in the directed edge structure of the graph.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dániel Bánky
- Protein Information Technology Group, Eötvös University, Pázmány Péter stny. 1/C, Budapest, Hungary
- Uratim Ltd., Budapest, Hungary
| | - Gábor Iván
- Protein Information Technology Group, Eötvös University, Pázmány Péter stny. 1/C, Budapest, Hungary
- Uratim Ltd., Budapest, Hungary
| | - Vince Grolmusz
- Protein Information Technology Group, Eötvös University, Pázmány Péter stny. 1/C, Budapest, Hungary
- Uratim Ltd., Budapest, Hungary
- * E-mail:
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33
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Butt AM, Nasrullah I, Tahir S, Tong Y. Comparative genomics analysis of Mycobacterium ulcerans for the identification of putative essential genes and therapeutic candidates. PLoS One 2012; 7:e43080. [PMID: 22912793 PMCID: PMC3418265 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0043080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2012] [Accepted: 07/16/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium ulcerans, the causative agent of Buruli ulcer, is the third most common mycobacterial disease after tuberculosis and leprosy. The present treatment options are limited and emergence of treatment resistant isolates represents a serious concern and a need for better therapeutics. Conventional drug discovery methods are time consuming and labor-intensive. Unfortunately, the slow growing nature of M. ulcerans in experimental conditions is also a barrier for drug discovery and development. In contrast, recent advancements in complete genome sequencing, in combination with cheminformatics and computational biology, represent an attractive alternative approach for the identification of therapeutic candidates worthy of experimental research. A computational, comparative genomics workflow was defined for the identification of novel therapeutic candidates against M. ulcerans, with the aim that a selected target should be essential to the pathogen, and have no homology in the human host. Initially, a total of 424 genes were predicted as essential from the M. ulcerans genome, via homology searching of essential genome content from 20 different bacteria. Metabolic pathway analysis showed that the most essential genes are associated with carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism. Among these, 236 proteins were identified as non-host and essential, and could serve as potential drug and vaccine candidates. Several drug target prioritization parameters including druggability were also calculated. Enzymes from several pathways are discussed as potential drug targets, including those from cell wall synthesis, thiamine biosynthesis, protein biosynthesis, and histidine biosynthesis. It is expected that our data will facilitate selection of M. ulcerans proteins for successful entry into drug design pipelines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azeem Mehmood Butt
- National Centre of Excellence in Molecular Biology (CEMB), University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
- * E-mail: (AMB); (YT)
| | - Izza Nasrullah
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Shifa Tahir
- National Center for Bioinformatics, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Yigang Tong
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- * E-mail: (AMB); (YT)
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34
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Micale N. Recent advances and perspectives on tropical diseases: Malaria. World J Transl Med 2012; 1:4-19. [DOI: 10.5528/wjtm.v1.i2.4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Malaria remains a major health problem in the world. It is a neglected disease because it occurs almost exclusively in poor developing countries, which offer negligible marketable and profitable opportunities. Malaria (together with Tuberculosis), is responsible for an unprecedented global health crisis with devastating effects in developing countries. The 2011 Word Malaria Report indicated that 106 countries showed endemic malaria. Malaria control depends mainly on drug treatment, which is increasingly difficult due to the spread of drug resistant parasites and requires expensive drug combinations. Part of the inability to combat this disease is attributed to an incomplete understanding of its pathogenesis and pathophysiology. Improving the knowledge of the underlying pathogenic mechanisms of malaria transmission and of the exclusive metabolic pathways of the parasites (protozoa of the genus Plasmodium), should promote efficient treatment of disease and help the identification of novel targets for potential therapeutic interventions. Moreover, the elucidation of determinants involved in the spread of malaria will provide important information for efficient planning of strategies for targeted control.
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35
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Butzloff S, Groves MR, Wrenger C, Müller IB. Cytometric quantification of singlet oxygen in the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Cytometry A 2012; 81:698-703. [DOI: 10.1002/cyto.a.22081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2012] [Revised: 05/13/2012] [Accepted: 05/21/2012] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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36
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Guédez G, Hipp K, Windeisen V, Derrer B, Gengenbacher M, Böttcher B, Sinning I, Kappes B, Tews I. Assembly of the eukaryotic PLP-synthase complex from Plasmodium and activation of the Pdx1 enzyme. Structure 2012; 20:172-84. [PMID: 22244765 DOI: 10.1016/j.str.2011.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2011] [Revised: 11/04/2011] [Accepted: 11/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Biosynthesis of vitamins is fundamental to malaria parasites. Plasmodia synthesize the active form of vitamin B(6) (pyridoxal 5'-phosphate, PLP) using a PLP synthase complex. The EM analysis shown here reveals a random association pattern of up to 12 Pdx2 glutaminase subunits to the dodecameric Pdx1 core complex. Interestingly, Plasmodium falciparum PLP synthase organizes in fibers. The crystal structure shows differences in complex formation to bacterial orthologs as interface variations. Alternative positioning of an α helix distinguishes an open conformation from a closed state when the enzyme binds substrate. The pentose substrate is covalently attached through its C1 and forms a Schiff base with Lys84. Ammonia transfer between Pdx2 glutaminase and Pdx1 active sites is regulated by a transient tunnel. The mutagenesis analysis allows defining the requirement for conservation of critical methionines, whereas there is also plasticity in ammonia tunnel construction as seen from comparison across different species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela Guédez
- Heidelberg University Biochemistry Center (BZH), Im Neuenheimer Feld 328, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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37
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Frech C, Chen N. Genome comparison of human and non-human malaria parasites reveals species subset-specific genes potentially linked to human disease. PLoS Comput Biol 2011; 7:e1002320. [PMID: 22215999 PMCID: PMC3245289 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2011] [Accepted: 11/07/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Genes underlying important phenotypic differences between Plasmodium species, the causative agents of malaria, are frequently found in only a subset of species and cluster at dynamically evolving subtelomeric regions of chromosomes. We hypothesized that chromosome-internal regions of Plasmodium genomes harbour additional species subset-specific genes that underlie differences in human pathogenicity, human-to-human transmissibility, and human virulence. We combined sequence similarity searches with synteny block analyses to identify species subset-specific genes in chromosome-internal regions of six published Plasmodium genomes, including Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium knowlesi, Plasmodium yoelii, Plasmodium berghei, and Plasmodium chabaudi. To improve comparative analysis, we first revised incorrectly annotated gene models using homology-based gene finders and examined putative subset-specific genes within syntenic contexts. Confirmed subset-specific genes were then analyzed for their role in biological pathways and examined for molecular functions using publicly available databases. We identified 16 genes that are well conserved in the three primate parasites but not found in rodent parasites, including three key enzymes of the thiamine (vitamin B1) biosynthesis pathway. Thirteen genes were found to be present in both human parasites but absent in the monkey parasite P. knowlesi, including genes specifically upregulated in sporozoites or gametocytes that could be linked to parasite transmission success between humans. Furthermore, we propose 15 chromosome-internal P. falciparum-specific genes as new candidate genes underlying increased human virulence and detected a currently uncharacterized cluster of P. vivax-specific genes on chromosome 6 likely involved in erythrocyte invasion. In conclusion, Plasmodium species harbour many chromosome-internal differences in the form of protein-coding genes, some of which are potentially linked to human disease and thus promising leads for future laboratory research. With more than 250 million infections and over a million deaths each year, malaria remains one of the most devastating infectious diseases worldwide. With the availability of complete genome sequences of both human and non-human Plasmodium parasites, the causative agents of malaria, it is now possible to use comparative genomics as a tool to look for genes that are present in some but not all Plasmodium species. Such species subset-specific genes possibly underlie important phenotypic differences between malaria parasites and could provide important clues for the development of new strategies to prevent and treat malaria in humans. In this study, we performed a comprehensive computational comparison of the published genomes of six Plasmodium species, including two human (P. falciparum and P. vivax), one monkey (P. knowlesi), and three rodent malaria parasites (P. berghei, P. yoelii, and P. chabaudi). This comparison revealed many species subset-specific genes that are potentially linked to human pathogenicity, human-to-human transmissibility, and human virulence. These genes can now be examined further by targeted experimental analyses to test predicted phenotypic associations and to elucidate gene function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Frech
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Nansheng Chen
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
- * E-mail:
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38
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Kappes B, Tews I, Binter A, Macheroux P. PLP-dependent enzymes as potential drug targets for protozoan diseases. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2011; 1814:1567-76. [PMID: 21884827 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2011.07.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2011] [Revised: 07/01/2011] [Accepted: 07/18/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The chemical properties of the B(6) vitamers are uniquely suited for wide use as cofactors in essential reactions, such as decarboxylations and transaminations. This review addresses current efforts to explore vitamin B(6) dependent enzymatic reactions as drug targets. Several current targets are described that are found amongst these enzymes. The focus is set on diseases caused by protozoan parasites. Comparison across a range of these organisms allows insight into the distribution of potential targets, many of which may be of interest in the development of broad range anti-protozoan drugs. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Pyridoxal Phosphate Enzymology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Kappes
- University Hospital Heidelberg, Department of Infectious Diseases, Parasitology, Im Neuenheimer Feld 324, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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39
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Butt AM, Tahir S, Nasrullah I, Idrees M, Lu J, Tong Y. Mycoplasma genitalium: a comparative genomics study of metabolic pathways for the identification of drug and vaccine targets. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2011; 12:53-62. [PMID: 22057004 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2011.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2011] [Revised: 10/07/2011] [Accepted: 10/10/2011] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
Increasing emergence of antibiotic-resistant pathogenic microorganisms is one of the biggest challenges for biomedical research and drug development. Traditional drug discovery methods are time-consuming, expensive and often yield few drug targets. In contrast, advances in complete genome sequencing, bioinformatics and cheminformatics represent an attractive alternative approach to identify drug targets worthy of experimental follow-up. Mycoplasma genitalium is a human parasitic pathogen that is associated with several sexually transmitted diseases. Recently, emergence of treatment-resistant isolates has been reported, which raises serious concern and a need for identification of additional drug targets. In the present study, a systematic workflow consisting of comparative genomics, metabolic pathways analysis and additional drug prioritizing parameters was defined for the identification of novel drug and vaccine targets that are essential for M. genitalium, but absent in its human host. In silico analyses and manual mining identified 79 proteins of M. genitalium, which showed no similarity to human proteins. Among these, 67 proteins were identified as non-homologous essential proteins that could serve as potential drug and vaccine targets. Subcellular localization, molecular weight, and three-dimensional structural characteristics that could facilitate filtering of attractive drug targets were also calculated for the non-homologous essential proteins. Enzymes from thiamine biosynthesis, protein biosynthesis, and folate biosynthesis were identified as attractive candidates for drug development. Furthermore, druggability of each of the identified drug targets was also evaluated by the DrugBank database. Results from this study could facilitate selection of M. genitalium proteins for entry into drug design and vaccine production pipelines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azeem Mehmood Butt
- Division of Molecular Virology, National Centre of Excellence in Molecular Biology (CEMB), University of the Punjab, Lahore 53700, Pakistan
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40
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Du Q, Wang H, Xie J. Thiamin (vitamin B1) biosynthesis and regulation: a rich source of antimicrobial drug targets? Int J Biol Sci 2011; 7:41-52. [PMID: 21234302 PMCID: PMC3020362 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.7.41] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2010] [Accepted: 01/05/2011] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug resistance of pathogens has necessitated the identification of novel targets for antibiotics. Thiamin (vitamin B1) is an essential cofactor for all organisms in its active form thiamin diphosphate (ThDP). Therefore, its metabolic pathways might be one largely untapped source of antibiotics targets. This review describes bacterial thiamin biosynthetic, salvage, and transport pathways. Essential thiamin synthetic enzymes such as Dxs and ThiE are proposed as promising drug targets. The regulation mechanism of thiamin biosynthesis by ThDP riboswitch is also discussed. As drug targets of existing antimicrobial compound pyrithiamin, the ThDP riboswitch might serves as alternative targets for more antibiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qinglin Du
- Institute of Modern Biopharmaceuticals, State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Eco-Enviroment and Bio-Resource of Three Gorges Area, School of Life Sciences, Southwest University, Beibei Chongqing, 400715, China
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41
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O'Cualain RDM, Hyde JE, Sims PFG. A protein-centric approach for the identification of folate enzymes from the malarial parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, using OFFGEL™ solution-based isoelectric focussing and mass spectrometry. Malar J 2010; 9:286. [PMID: 20955557 PMCID: PMC2967559 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-9-286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2010] [Accepted: 10/18/2010] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Plasmodium species are difficult to study using proteomic technology because they contain large amounts of haemoglobin-derived products (HDP), generated by parasite breakdown of host haemoglobin. HDP are known to interfere with isoelectric focussing, a cornerstone of fractionation strategies for the identification of proteins by mass spectrometry. In addition to the challenge presented by this material, as in most proteomes, there exists in this parasite a considerable dynamic range between proteins of high and low abundance. The enzymes of the folate pathway, a proven and widely used drug target, are included in the latter class. METHODS This report describes a work-flow utilizing a parasite-specific extraction protocol that minimizes release of HDP into the lysate, followed by in-solution based OFFGEL™ electrophoresis at the protein level, trypsin digestion and mass spectrometric analysis. RESULTS It is demonstrated that, by removing HDP from parasite lysates, OFFGEL™-mediated protein separation is able to deliver reduced complexity protein fractions. Importantly, proteins with similar and predictable physical properties are sharply focussed within such fractions. CONCLUSIONS By following this novel workflow, data have been obtained which allow the unequivocal experimental identification by mass spectrometry of four of the six proteins involved in folate biosynthesis and recycling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronan DM O'Cualain
- Manchester Interdisciplinary Biocentre, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, UK
| | - John E Hyde
- Manchester Interdisciplinary Biocentre, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, UK
| | - Paul FG Sims
- Manchester Interdisciplinary Biocentre, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, UK
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Derrer B, Windeisen V, Guédez Rodríguez G, Seidler J, Gengenbacher M, Lehmann WD, Rippe K, Sinning I, Tews I, Kappes B. Defining the structural requirements for ribose 5-phosphate-binding and intersubunit cross-talk of the malarial pyridoxal 5-phosphate synthase. FEBS Lett 2010; 584:4169-74. [PMID: 20837012 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2010.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2010] [Revised: 07/23/2010] [Accepted: 09/02/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Most organisms synthesise the B(6) vitamer pyridoxal 5-phosphate (PLP) via the glutamine amidotransferase PLP synthase, a large enzyme complex of 12 Pdx1 synthase subunits with up to 12 Pdx2 glutaminase subunits attached. Deletion analysis revealed that the C-terminus has four distinct functionalities: assembly of the Pdx1 monomers, binding of the pentose substrate (ribose 5-phosphate), formation of the reaction intermediate I(320), and finally PLP synthesis. Deletions of distinct C-terminal regions distinguish between these individual functions. PLP formation is the only function that is conferred to the enzyme by the C-terminus acting in trans, explaining the cooperative nature of the complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bianca Derrer
- University Hospital Heidelberg, Department of Infectious Diseases, Parasitology, Heidelberg, Germany
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Wang P, Wang Q, Yang Y, Coward JK, Nzila A, Sims PF, Hyde JE. Characterisation of the bifunctional dihydrofolate synthase-folylpolyglutamate synthase from Plasmodium falciparum; a potential novel target for antimalarial antifolate inhibition. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2010; 172:41-51. [PMID: 20350571 PMCID: PMC2877875 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2010.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2010] [Revised: 03/15/2010] [Accepted: 03/16/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Unusually for a eukaryote, the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum expresses dihydrofolate synthase (DHFS) and folylpolyglutamate synthase (FPGS) as a single bifunctional protein. The two activities contribute to the essential pathway of folate biosynthesis and modification. The DHFS activity of recombinant PfDHFS–FPGS exhibited non-standard kinetics at high co-substrate (glutamate and ATP) concentrations, being partially inhibited by increasing concentrations of its principal substrate, dihydropteroate (DHP). Binding of DHP to the catalytic and inhibitory sites exhibited dissociation constants of 0.50 μM and 1.25 μM, respectively. DHFS activity measured under lower co-substrate concentrations, where data fitted the Michaelis–Menten equation, yielded apparent Km values of 0.88 μM for DHP, 22.8 μM for ATP and 5.97 μM for glutamate. Of the substrates tested in FPGS assays, only tetrahydrofolate (THF) was efficiently converted to polyglutamylated forms, exhibiting standard kinetics with an apparent Km of 0.96 μM; dihydrofolate, folate and the folate analogue methotrexate (MTX) were negligibly processed, emphasising the importance of the oxidation state of the pterin moiety. Moreover, MTX inhibited neither DHFS nor FPGS, even at high concentrations. Conversely, two phosphinate analogues of 7,8-dihydrofolate that mimic tetrahedral intermediates formed during DHFS- and FPGS-catalysed glutamylation were powerfully inhibitory. The Ki value of an aryl phosphinate analogue against DHFS was 0.14 μM and for an alkyl phosphinate against FPGS 0.091 μM, with each inhibitor showing a high degree of specificity. This, combined with the absence of DHFS activity in humans, suggests PfDHFS–FPGS might represent a potential new drug target in the previously validated folate pathway of P. falciparum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Wang
- Manchester Interdisciplinary Biocentre, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, UK
| | - Qi Wang
- Manchester Interdisciplinary Biocentre, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, UK
| | - Yonghong Yang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Michigan, 930 N. University, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1055, USA
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, 930 N. University, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1055, USA
| | - James K. Coward
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Michigan, 930 N. University, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1055, USA
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, 930 N. University, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1055, USA
| | - Alexis Nzila
- KEMRI, Wellcome Trust Collaborative Research Programme, Kilifi 80108, Kenya
| | - Paul F.G. Sims
- Manchester Interdisciplinary Biocentre, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, UK
| | - John E. Hyde
- Manchester Interdisciplinary Biocentre, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, UK
- Corresponding author at: University of Manchester, Faculty of Life Sciences, Manchester Interdisciplinary Biocentre, 131 Princess St, Manchester M1 7DN, UK. Tel.: +44 161 306 4185; fax: +44 161 306 5201.
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Seeber F, Soldati-Favre D. Metabolic Pathways in the Apicoplast of Apicomplexa. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2010; 281:161-228. [DOI: 10.1016/s1937-6448(10)81005-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
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