1
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Jiang X. An overview of the Plasmodium falciparum hexose transporter and its therapeutic interventions. Proteins 2022; 90:1766-1778. [PMID: 35445447 PMCID: PMC9790349 DOI: 10.1002/prot.26351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Despite intense elimination efforts, human malaria, caused by the infection of five Plasmodium species, remains the deadliest parasitic disease in the world. Even worse, with the emergence and spreading of the first-line drug-resistant Plasmodium parasites, therapeutic interventions based on novel plasmodial drug targets are more necessary than ever. Given that the blood-stage parasites primarily rely on glycolysis for their energy supply, blocking glucose uptake, the rate-limiting step of ATP generation, was considered a promising approach to kill these parasites. To achieve this goal, characterization of the plasmodial hexose transporter and development of selective inhibitors have been pursued for decades. Here, we review the identification and characterization of the Plasmodium falciparum hexose transporter (PfHT1) and summarize current advances in its inhibitor development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Jiang
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciencesthe University of New South WalesSydneyNew South Wales
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2
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Molecular basis for inhibiting human glucose transporters by exofacial inhibitors. Nat Commun 2022; 13:2632. [PMID: 35552392 PMCID: PMC9098912 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-30326-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Human glucose transporters (GLUTs) are responsible for cellular uptake of hexoses. Elevated expression of GLUTs, particularly GLUT1 and GLUT3, is required to fuel the hyperproliferation of cancer cells, making GLUT inhibitors potential anticancer therapeutics. Meanwhile, GLUT inhibitor-conjugated insulin is being explored to mitigate the hypoglycemia side effect of insulin therapy in type 1 diabetes. Reasoning that exofacial inhibitors of GLUT1/3 may be favored for therapeutic applications, we report here the engineering of a GLUT3 variant, designated GLUT3exo, that can be probed for screening and validating exofacial inhibitors. We identify an exofacial GLUT3 inhibitor SA47 and elucidate its mode of action by a 2.3 Å resolution crystal structure of SA47-bound GLUT3. Our studies serve as a framework for the discovery of GLUTs exofacial inhibitors for therapeutic development. Human glucose transporters (GLUTs), particularly GLUT1 and GLUT3, are potential anticancer therapy targets. Here, Nan Wang et al. use an engineered GLUT 3 variant to identify an exofacial GLUT3 inhibitor, SA47, and elucidate the drug’s inhibitory mechanism.
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3
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Monteiro Júnior JC, Krüger A, Palmisano G, Wrenger C. Transporter-Mediated Solutes Uptake as Drug Target in Plasmodium falciparum. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:845841. [PMID: 35370717 PMCID: PMC8965513 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.845841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Malaria remains a public health problem with still more than half a million deaths annually. Despite ongoing efforts of many countries, malaria elimination has been difficult due to emerging resistances against most traditional drugs, including artemisinin compounds - the most potent antimalarials currently available. Therefore, the discovery and development of new drugs with novel mechanisms of action to circumvent resistances is urgently needed. In this sense, one of the most promising areas is the exploration of transport proteins. Transporters mediate solute uptake for intracellular parasite proliferation and survival. Targeting transporters can exploit these processes to eliminate the parasite. Here, we focus on transporters of the Plasmodium falciparum-infected red blood cell studied as potential biological targets and discuss published drugs directed at them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Júlio César Monteiro Júnior
- Unit for Drug Discovery, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Arne Krüger
- Unit for Drug Discovery, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Giuseppe Palmisano
- GlycoProteomics Laboratory, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Carsten Wrenger
- Unit for Drug Discovery, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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4
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Jiang X, Yuan Y, Huang J, Zhang S, Luo S, Wang N, Pu D, Zhao N, Tang Q, Hirata K, Yang X, Jiao Y, Sakata-Kato T, Wu JW, Yan C, Kato N, Yin H, Yan N. Structural Basis for Blocking Sugar Uptake into the Malaria Parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Cell 2020; 183:258-268.e12. [PMID: 32860739 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2020.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Revised: 07/08/2020] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Plasmodium species, the causative agent of malaria, rely on glucose for energy supply during blood stage. Inhibition of glucose uptake thus represents a potential strategy for the development of antimalarial drugs. Here, we present the crystal structures of PfHT1, the sole hexose transporter in the genome of Plasmodium species, at resolutions of 2.6 Å in complex with D-glucose and 3.7 Å with a moderately selective inhibitor, C3361. Although both structures exhibit occluded conformations, binding of C3361 induces marked rearrangements that result in an additional pocket. This inhibitor-binding-induced pocket presents an opportunity for the rational design of PfHT1-specific inhibitors. Among our designed C3361 derivatives, several exhibited improved inhibition of PfHT1 and cellular potency against P. falciparum, with excellent selectivity to human GLUT1. These findings serve as a proof of concept for the development of the next-generation antimalarial chemotherapeutics by simultaneously targeting the orthosteric and allosteric sites of PfHT1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Tsinghua-Peking Joint Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yafei Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Jian Huang
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Tsinghua-Peking Joint Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Shuo Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Tsinghua-Peking Joint Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Shuchen Luo
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Tsinghua-Peking Joint Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Nan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Tsinghua-Peking Joint Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Debing Pu
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Tsinghua-Peking Joint Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Na Zhao
- Global Health Drug Discovery Institute, Zhongguancun Dongsheng International Science Park, 1 North Yongtaizhuang Road, Beijing 100192, China
| | - Qingxuan Tang
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Tsinghua-Peking Joint Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Kunio Hirata
- Advanced Photon Technology Division, Research Infrastructure Group, SR Life Science Instrumentation Unit, RIKEN/SPring-8 Center, Hyogo 679-5148, Japan
| | - Xikang Yang
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Tsinghua-Peking Joint Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yaqing Jiao
- Global Health Drug Discovery Institute, Zhongguancun Dongsheng International Science Park, 1 North Yongtaizhuang Road, Beijing 100192, China
| | - Tomoyo Sakata-Kato
- Global Health Drug Discovery Institute, Zhongguancun Dongsheng International Science Park, 1 North Yongtaizhuang Road, Beijing 100192, China
| | - Jia-Wei Wu
- Institute of Molecular Enzymology, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China
| | - Chuangye Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Tsinghua-Peking Joint Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Nobutaka Kato
- Global Health Drug Discovery Institute, Zhongguancun Dongsheng International Science Park, 1 North Yongtaizhuang Road, Beijing 100192, China
| | - Hang Yin
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Tsinghua-Peking Joint Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China.
| | - Nieng Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Tsinghua-Peking Joint Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China.
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5
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Transmembrane solute transport in the apicomplexan parasite Plasmodium. Emerg Top Life Sci 2017; 1:553-561. [PMID: 33525850 DOI: 10.1042/etls20170097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2017] [Revised: 11/12/2017] [Accepted: 11/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Apicomplexa are a large group of eukaryotic, single-celled parasites, with complex life cycles that occur within a wide range of different microenvironments. They include important human pathogens such as Plasmodium, the causal agent of malaria, and Toxoplasma, which causes toxoplasmosis most often in immunocompromised individuals. Despite environmental differences in their life cycles, these parasites retain the ability to obtain nutrients, remove waste products, and control ion balances. They achieve this flexibility by relying on proteins that can deliver and remove solutes. This reliance on transport proteins for essential functions makes these pathways excellent potential targets for drug development programmes. Transport proteins are frequently key mediators of drug resistance by their ability to remove drugs from their sites of action. The study of transport processes mediated by integral membrane proteins and, in particular, identification of their physiological functions and localisation, and differentiation from host orthologues has already established new validated drug targets. Our understanding of how apicomplexan parasites have adapted to changing environmental challenges has also increased through the study of their transporters. This brief introduction to membrane transporters of apicomplexans highlights recent discoveries focusing on Plasmodium and emphasises future directions.
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6
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A Novel Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer-Based Screen in High-Throughput Format To Identify Inhibitors of Malarial and Human Glucose Transporters. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2016; 60:7407-7414. [PMID: 27736766 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00218-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2016] [Accepted: 09/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The glucose transporter PfHT is essential to the survival of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum and has been shown to be a druggable target with high potential for pharmacological intervention. Identification of compounds against novel drug targets is crucial to combating resistance against current therapeutics. Here, we describe the development of a cell-based assay system readily adaptable to high-throughput screening that directly measures compound effects on PfHT-mediated glucose transport. Intracellular glucose concentrations are detected using a genetically encoded fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based glucose sensor. This allows assessment of the ability of small molecules to inhibit glucose uptake with high accuracy (Z' factor of >0.8), thereby eliminating the need for radiolabeled substrates. Furthermore, we have adapted this assay to counterscreen PfHT hits against the human orthologues GLUT1, -2, -3, and -4. We report the identification of several hits after screening the Medicines for Malaria Venture (MMV) Malaria Box, a library of 400 compounds known to inhibit erythrocytic development of P. falciparum Hit compounds were characterized by determining the half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) for the uptake of radiolabeled glucose into isolated P. falciparum parasites. One of our hits, compound MMV009085, shows high potency and orthologue selectivity, thereby successfully validating our assay for antimalarial screening.
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7
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Fonseca ALD, Nunes RR, Braga VML, Comar M, Alves RJ, Varotti FDP, Taranto AG. Docking, QM/MM, and molecular dynamics simulations of the hexose transporter from Plasmodium falciparum (PfHT). J Mol Graph Model 2016; 66:174-86. [PMID: 27131282 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmgm.2016.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2015] [Revised: 03/14/2016] [Accepted: 03/24/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Malaria is the most prevalent parasitic disease in the world. Currently, an effective vaccine for malaria does not exist, and chemotherapy must be used to treat the disease. Because of increasing resistance to current antimalarial drugs, new treatments must be developed. Among the many potential molecular targets, the hexose transporter of Plasmodium falciparum (PfHT) is particularly promising because it plays a vital role in glucose transport for the parasite. Thus, this study aims to determine the three-dimensional structure of PfHT and to describe the intermolecular interactions between active glycoside derivatives and PfHT. Such information should aid in the development of new antimalarial drugs. The receptor PfHT was constructed from primary sequences deposited in the SWISS MODEL database. Next, molecular docking simulations between O-(undec-10-en)-l-D-glucose and the constructed active site models were performed using Autodock Vina. The glycoside derivative-PfHT complexes were then refined using the hybrid QM/MM (PM3/ff03) method within the AMBER package. The models were then evaluated using Ramachandran plots, which indicated that 93.2% of the residues in the refined PfHT models (P5) were present in favorable regions. Furthermore, graphical plots using ANOLEA showed that the potential energies of interaction for atoms unbonded to P5 were negative. Finally, the O-(undec-10-en)-l-D-glucose-PfHT complex was evaluated using 20-ns Molecular Dynamics simulations with an ff03 force field. Docking and QM/MM studies revealed the amino acids essential for molecular recognition of and activity on glycosides. Inhibition of glucose transporters may prevent the development and metabolism of P. falciparum, so a description of the receptor's structure is a critical step towards rational drug design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Luisa da Fonseca
- Núcleo de Pesquisa em Química Biológica, Universidade Federal de São João del-Rei, Divinópolis, MG, Brazil; Laboratório de Modelagem Molecular, Universidade Federal de São João del-Rei, Divinópolis, MG, Brazil; Laboratório de Química Medicinal Farmacêutica, Universidade Federal de São João del-Rei, Divinópolis, MG, Brazil
| | - Renata Rachide Nunes
- Laboratório de Química Medicinal Farmacêutica, Universidade Federal de São João del-Rei, Divinópolis, MG, Brazil
| | - Vanildo Martins Lima Braga
- Laboratório de Química Medicinal Farmacêutica, Universidade Federal de São João del-Rei, Divinópolis, MG, Brazil
| | - Moacyr Comar
- Laboratório de Modelagem Molecular, Universidade Federal de São João del-Rei, Divinópolis, MG, Brazil
| | - Ricardo José Alves
- Laboratório de Química, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Fernando de Pilla Varotti
- Núcleo de Pesquisa em Química Biológica, Universidade Federal de São João del-Rei, Divinópolis, MG, Brazil
| | - Alex Gutterres Taranto
- Laboratório de Química Medicinal Farmacêutica, Universidade Federal de São João del-Rei, Divinópolis, MG, Brazil.
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8
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Rijpma SR, van der Velden M, Bilos A, Jansen RS, Mahakena S, Russel FGM, Sauerwein RW, van de Wetering K, Koenderink JB. MRP1 mediates folate transport and antifolate sensitivity in Plasmodium falciparum. FEBS Lett 2016; 590:482-92. [PMID: 26900081 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.12079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2015] [Revised: 01/12/2016] [Accepted: 01/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Multidrug resistance-associated proteins (MRP) of Plasmodium falciparum have been associated with altered drug sensitivity. Knowledge on MRP substrate specificity is indispensible for the characterization of resistance mechanisms and identifying its physiological roles. An untargeted metabolomics approach detected decreased folate concentrations in red blood cells infected with schizont stage parasites lacking expression of MRP1. Furthermore, a tenfold decrease in sensitivity toward the folate analog methotrexate was detected for parasites lacking MRP1. PfMRP1 is involved in the export of folate from parasites into red blood cells and is therefore a relevant factor for efficient malaria treatment through the folate pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanna R Rijpma
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Maarten van der Velden
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Albert Bilos
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Robert S Jansen
- Division of Molecular Oncology, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sunny Mahakena
- Division of Molecular Oncology, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Frans G M Russel
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Robert W Sauerwein
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Koen van de Wetering
- Division of Molecular Oncology, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jan B Koenderink
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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9
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Rijpma SR, van der Velden M, González-Pons M, Annoura T, van Schaijk BCL, van Gemert GJ, van den Heuvel JJMW, Ramesar J, Chevalley-Maurel S, Ploemen IH, Khan SM, Franetich JF, Mazier D, de Wilt JHW, Serrano AE, Russel FGM, Janse CJ, Sauerwein RW, Koenderink JB, Franke-Fayard BM. Multidrug ATP-binding cassette transporters are essential for hepatic development of Plasmodium sporozoites. Cell Microbiol 2015; 18:369-83. [PMID: 26332724 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2015] [Revised: 08/11/2015] [Accepted: 08/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Multidrug resistance-associated proteins (MRPs) belong to the C-family of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transport proteins and are known to transport a variety of physiologically important compounds and to be involved in the extrusion of pharmaceuticals. Rodent malaria parasites encode a single ABC transporter subfamily C protein, whereas human parasites encode two: MRP1 and MRP2. Although associated with drug resistance, their biological function and substrates remain unknown. To elucidate the role of MRP throughout the parasite life cycle, Plasmodium berghei and Plasmodium falciparum mutants lacking MRP expression were generated. P. berghei mutants lacking expression of the single MRP as well as P. falciparum mutants lacking MRP1, MRP2 or both proteins have similar blood stage growth kinetics and drug-sensitivity profiles as wild type parasites. We show that MRP1-deficient parasites readily invade primary human hepatocytes and develop into mature liver stages. In contrast, both P. falciparum MRP2-deficient parasites and P. berghei mutants lacking MRP protein expression abort in mid to late liver stage development, failing to produce mature liver stages. The combined P. berghei and P. falciparum data are the first demonstration of a critical role of an ABC transporter during Plasmodium liver stage development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanna R Rijpma
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Radboud University Medical Centre, Geert-Grooteplein 28, 6525 GA, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Maarten van der Velden
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Radboud University Medical Centre, Geert-Grooteplein 28, 6525 GA, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Maria González-Pons
- Department of Microbiology and Medical Zoology, University of Puerto Rico, School of Medicine, PR 00936-5067, San Juan, Puerto Rico, USA
| | - Takeshi Annoura
- Department of Tropical Medicine, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Post code 105-8461, Nishi-shinbashi 3-25-8, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ben C L van Schaijk
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Centre, Geert-Grooteplein 28, 6525 GA, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Geert-Jan van Gemert
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Centre, Geert-Grooteplein 28, 6525 GA, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen J M W van den Heuvel
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Radboud University Medical Centre, Geert-Grooteplein 28, 6525 GA, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Jai Ramesar
- Department of Parasitology, Center of Infectious Diseases, Leiden Malaria Research Group, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Severine Chevalley-Maurel
- Department of Parasitology, Center of Infectious Diseases, Leiden Malaria Research Group, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Ivo H Ploemen
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Centre, Geert-Grooteplein 28, 6525 GA, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Shahid M Khan
- Department of Tropical Medicine, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Post code 105-8461, Nishi-shinbashi 3-25-8, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Jean-Francois Franetich
- AP-HP, Groupe hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière, Service Parasitologie-Mycologie, 47-83 Boulevard de l'Hôpital, 75651, Paris, France
| | - Dominique Mazier
- AP-HP, Groupe hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière, Service Parasitologie-Mycologie, 47-83 Boulevard de l'Hôpital, 75651, Paris, France.,CIMI-Paris (UPMC UMRS CR7 - Inserm U1135 - CNRS ERL 8255), Paris, France
| | - Johannes H W de Wilt
- Department of Surgery, Radboud University Medical Centre, Geert Grooteplein 10, 6525 GA, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Adelfa E Serrano
- Department of Microbiology and Medical Zoology, University of Puerto Rico, School of Medicine, PR 00936-5067, San Juan, Puerto Rico, USA
| | - Frans G M Russel
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Radboud University Medical Centre, Geert-Grooteplein 28, 6525 GA, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Chris J Janse
- Department of Parasitology, Center of Infectious Diseases, Leiden Malaria Research Group, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Robert W Sauerwein
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Centre, Geert-Grooteplein 28, 6525 GA, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Jan B Koenderink
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Radboud University Medical Centre, Geert-Grooteplein 28, 6525 GA, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Blandine M Franke-Fayard
- Department of Parasitology, Center of Infectious Diseases, Leiden Malaria Research Group, Leiden, The Netherlands
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10
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Asparagine requirement in Plasmodium berghei as a target to prevent malaria transmission and liver infections. Nat Commun 2015; 6:8775. [PMID: 26531182 PMCID: PMC4659947 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms9775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2015] [Accepted: 09/29/2015] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The proteins of Plasmodium, the malaria parasite, are strikingly rich in asparagine. Plasmodium depends primarily on host haemoglobin degradation for amino acids and has a rudimentary pathway for amino acid biosynthesis, but retains a gene encoding asparagine synthetase (AS). Here we show that deletion of AS in Plasmodium berghei (Pb) delays the asexual- and liver-stage development with substantial reduction in the formation of ookinetes, oocysts and sporozoites in mosquitoes. In the absence of asparagine synthesis, extracellular asparagine supports suboptimal survival of PbAS knockout (KO) parasites. Depletion of blood asparagine levels by treating PbASKO-infected mice with asparaginase completely prevents the development of liver stages, exflagellation of male gametocytes and the subsequent formation of sexual stages. In vivo supplementation of asparagine in mice restores the exflagellation of PbASKO parasites. Thus, the parasite life cycle has an absolute requirement for asparagine, which we propose could be targeted to prevent malaria transmission and liver infections. Malaria parasites obtain amino acids primarily from the host, but possess a gene encoding a putative asparagine synthetase. Here, the authors show that this enzyme is functional and that asparagine is crucial for the development of the parasite's sexual stages in mosquitoes and liver stages in mice.
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11
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Ortiz D, Guiguemde WA, Johnson A, Elya C, Anderson J, Clark J, Connelly M, Yang L, Min J, Sato Y, Guy RK, Landfear SM. Identification of Selective Inhibitors of the Plasmodium falciparum Hexose Transporter PfHT by Screening Focused Libraries of Anti-Malarial Compounds. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0123598. [PMID: 25894322 PMCID: PMC4404333 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0123598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2014] [Accepted: 02/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Development of resistance against current antimalarial drugs necessitates the search for novel drugs that interact with different targets and have distinct mechanisms of action. Malaria parasites depend upon high levels of glucose uptake followed by inefficient metabolic utilization via the glycolytic pathway, and the Plasmodium falciparum hexose transporter PfHT, which mediates uptake of glucose, has thus been recognized as a promising drug target. This transporter is highly divergent from mammalian hexose transporters, and it appears to be a permease that is essential for parasite viability in intra-erythrocytic, mosquito, and liver stages of the parasite life cycle. An assay was developed that is appropriate for high throughput screening against PfHT based upon heterologous expression of PfHT in Leishmania mexicana parasites that are null mutants for their endogenous hexose transporters. Screening of two focused libraries of antimalarial compounds identified two such compounds that are high potency selective inhibitors of PfHT compared to human GLUT1. Additionally, 7 other compounds were identified that are lower potency and lower specificity PfHT inhibitors but might nonetheless serve as starting points for identification of analogs with more selective properties. These results further support the potential of PfHT as a novel drug target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Ortiz
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, United States of America
| | - W. Armand Guiguemde
- Department of Chemical Biology & Therapeutics, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, United States of America
| | - Alex Johnson
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, United States of America
| | - Carolyn Elya
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, United States of America
| | - Johanna Anderson
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, United States of America
| | - Julie Clark
- Department of Chemical Biology & Therapeutics, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, United States of America
| | - Michele Connelly
- Department of Chemical Biology & Therapeutics, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, United States of America
| | - Lei Yang
- Department of Chemical Biology & Therapeutics, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, United States of America
| | - Jaeki Min
- Department of Chemical Biology & Therapeutics, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, United States of America
| | - Yuko Sato
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, United States of America
| | - R. Kiplin Guy
- Department of Chemical Biology & Therapeutics, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, United States of America
| | - Scott M. Landfear
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Krishna S, Pulcini S, Moore CM, Teo BHY, Staines HM. Pumped up: reflections on PfATP6 as the target for artemisinins. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2014; 35:4-11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2013.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2013] [Revised: 10/11/2013] [Accepted: 10/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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David-Bosne S, Florent I, Lund-Winther AM, Hansen JB, Buch-Pedersen M, Machillot P, le Maire M, Jaxel C. Antimalarial screening via large-scale purification of Plasmodium falciparum Ca2+-ATPase 6 and in vitro studies. FEBS J 2013; 280:5419-29. [PMID: 23497141 DOI: 10.1111/febs.12244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2012] [Revised: 02/18/2013] [Accepted: 03/11/2013] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The most severe form of human malaria is caused by the parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Despite the current need, there is no effective vaccine and parasites are becoming resistant to most of the antimalarials available. Therefore, there is an urgent need to discover new drugs from targets that have not yet suffered from drug pressure with the aim of overcoming the problem of new emerging resistance. Membrane transporters, such as P. falciparum Ca(2+)-ATPase 6 (PfATP6), the P. falciparum sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+)-ATPase (SERCA), have been proposed as potentially good antimalarial targets. The present investigation focuses on: (a) the large-scale purification of PfATP6 for maintenance of its enzymatic activity; (b) screening for PfATP6 inhibitors from a compound library; and (c) the selection of the best inhibitors for further tests on P. falciparum growth in vitro. We managed to heterologously express in yeast and purify an active form of PfATP6 as previously described, although in larger amounts. In addition to some classical SERCA inhibitors, a chemical library of 1680 molecules was screened. From these, we selected a pool of the 20 most potent inhibitors of PfATP6, presenting half maximal inhibitory concentration values in the range 1-9 μm. From these, eight were chosen for evaluation of their effect on P. falciparum growth in vitro, and the best compound presented a half maximal inhibitory concentration of ~ 2 μm. We verified the absence of an inhibitory effect of most of the compounds on mammalian SERCA1a, representing a potential advantage in terms of human toxicity. The present study describes a multidisciplinary approach allowing the selection of promising PfATP6-specific inhibitors with good antimalarial activity.
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The Plasmodium berghei Ca(2+)/H(+) exchanger, PbCAX, is essential for tolerance to environmental Ca(2+) during sexual development. PLoS Pathog 2013; 9:e1003191. [PMID: 23468629 PMCID: PMC3585132 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2012] [Accepted: 12/28/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Ca(2+) contributes to a myriad of important cellular processes in all organisms, including the apicomplexans, Plasmodium and Toxoplasma. Due to its varied and essential roles, free Ca(2+) is tightly regulated by complex mechanisms. These mechanisms are therefore of interest as putative drug targets. One pathway in Ca(2+) homeostatic control in apicomplexans uses a Ca(2+)/H(+) exchanger (a member of the cation exchanger family, CAX). The P. falciparum CAX (PfCAX) has recently been characterised in asexual blood stage parasites. To determine the physiological importance of apicomplexan CAXs, tagging and knock-out strategies were undertaken in the genetically tractable T. gondii and P. berghei parasites. In addition, a yeast heterologous expression system was used to study the function of apicomplexan CAXs. Tagging of T. gondii and P. berghei CAXs (TgCAX and PbCAX) under control of their endogenous promoters could not demonstrate measureable expression of either CAX in tachyzoites and asexual blood stages, respectively. These results were consistent with the ability of parasites to tolerate knock-outs of the genes for TgCAX and PbCAX at these developmental stages. In contrast, PbCAX expression was detectable during sexual stages of development in female gametocytes/gametes, zygotes and ookinetes, where it was dispersed in membranous networks within the cytosol (with minimal mitochondrial localisation). Furthermore, genetically disrupted parasites failed to develop further from "round" form zygotes, suggesting that PbCAX is essential for ookinete development and differentiation. This impeded phenotype could be rescued by removal of extracellular Ca(2+). Therefore, PbCAX provides a mechanism for free living parasites to multiply within the ionic microenvironment of the mosquito midgut. Ca(2+) homeostasis mediated by PbCAX is critical and suggests plasmodial CAXs may be targeted in approaches designed to block parasite transmission.
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Choveaux DL, Przyborski JM, Goldring JPD. A Plasmodium falciparum copper-binding membrane protein with copper transport motifs. Malar J 2012. [PMID: 23190769 PMCID: PMC3528452 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-11-397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Copper is an essential catalytic co-factor for metabolically important cellular enzymes, such as cytochrome-c oxidase. Eukaryotic cells acquire copper through a copper transport protein and distribute intracellular copper using molecular chaperones. The copper chelator, neocuproine, inhibits Plasmodium falciparum ring-to-trophozoite transition in vitro, indicating a copper requirement for malaria parasite development. How the malaria parasite acquires or secretes copper still remains to be fully elucidated. Methods PlasmoDB was searched for sequences corresponding to candidate P. falciparum copper-requiring proteins. The amino terminal domain of a putative P. falciparum copper transport protein was cloned and expressed as a maltose binding fusion protein. The copper binding ability of this protein was examined. Copper transport protein-specific anti-peptide antibodies were generated in chickens and used to establish native protein localization in P. falciparum parasites by immunofluorescence microscopy. Results Six P. falciparum copper-requiring protein orthologs and a candidate P. falciparum copper transport protein (PF14_0369), containing characteristic copper transport protein features, were identified in PlasmoDB. The recombinant amino terminal domain of the transport protein bound reduced copper in vitro and within Escherichia coli cells during recombinant expression. Immunolocalization studies tracked the copper binding protein translocating from the erythrocyte plasma membrane in early ring stage to a parasite membrane as the parasites developed to schizonts. The protein appears to be a PEXEL-negative membrane protein. Conclusion Plasmodium falciparum parasites express a native protein with copper transporter characteristics that binds copper in vitro. Localization of the protein to the erythrocyte and parasite plasma membranes could provide a mechanism for the delivery of novel anti-malarial compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- David L Choveaux
- Biochemistry, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Carbis Road, Scottsville, 3209, South Africa
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Staines HM, Croft SL, Horrocks PD. Developing novel strategies to prevent parasitic infections. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2012; 9:783-5. [PMID: 21810050 DOI: 10.1586/eri.11.62] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The 49th Annual Spring Meeting of the British Society of Parasitology was held at Nottingham University, UK, on 11-14 April 2011. Although a meeting of a national parasitological society, the meeting attracted approximately 375 delegates from 30 countries worldwide. Of the various themes at this meeting, two were focused on the biology, etiology and development of therapeutics for the parasitic diseases; malaria and schistosomiasis. Here we report on three aspects of this meeting that are focused on the development of novel therapeutics to address the significant health burden imposed by these tropical diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry M Staines
- Centre for Infection and Immunology, Division of Clinical Sciences, St George's, University of London, London, SW170RE, UK.
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Jensen K, Plichta D, Panagiotou G, Kouskoumvekaki I. Mapping the genome of Plasmodium falciparum on the drug-like chemical space reveals novel anti-malarial targets and potential drug leads. MOLECULAR BIOSYSTEMS 2012; 8:1678-85. [DOI: 10.1039/c2mb00008c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Hata Y, Zimmermann S, Quitschau M, Kaiser M, Hamburger M, Adams M. Antiplasmodial and antitrypanosomal activity of pyrethrins and pyrethroids. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2011; 59:9172-9176. [PMID: 21786822 DOI: 10.1021/jf201776z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
In a screen of 1800 plant and fungal extracts for antiplasmodial, antitrypanosomal, and leishmanicidal activity, the n-hexane extract of Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium (Trevir.) Vis. flowers showed strong activity against Plasmodium falciparum. We isolated the five pyrethrins [i.e., pyrethrin II (1), jasmolin II (2), cinerin II (3), pyrethrin I (4), and jasmolin I (5)] from this extract. These were tested together with 15 synthetic pyrethroids for their activity against P. falciparum and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense and for cytotoxicity in rat myoblast L6 cells. The natural pyrethrins showed antiplasmodial activity with IC(50)s between 4 and 12 μM, and antitrypanosomal activity with IC(50)s from 7 to 31 μM. The pyrethroids exhibited weaker antiplasmodial and antitrypanosomal activity than the pyrethrins. Both pyrethrins and pyrethroids showed moderate cytotoxicity against L6 cells. Pyrethrin II (1) was the most selective antiplasmodial compound, with a selectivity index of 24.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshie Hata
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 50, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
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Boisson B, Lacroix C, Bischoff E, Gueirard P, Bargieri DY, Franke-Fayard B, Janse CJ, Ménard R, Baldacci P. The novel putative transporter NPT1 plays a critical role in early stages of Plasmodium berghei sexual development. Mol Microbiol 2011; 81:1343-57. [PMID: 21752110 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2011.07767.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Transmission of Plasmodium species from a mammalian host to the mosquito vector requires the uptake, during an infected blood meal, of gametocytes, the precursor cells of the gametes. Relatively little is known about the molecular mechanisms involved in the developmental switch from asexual development to sexual differentiation or the maturation and survival of gametocytes. Here, we show that a gene coding for a novel putative transporter, NPT1, plays a crucial role in the development of Plasmodium berghei gametocytes. Parasites lacking NPT1 are severely compromised in the production of gametocytes and the rare gametocytes produced are unable to differentiate into fertile gametes. This is the earliest block in gametocytogenesis obtained by reverse genetics and the first to demonstrate the role of a protein with a putative transport function in sexual development. These results and the high degree of conservation of NPT1 in Plasmodium species suggest that this protein could be an attractive target for the development of novel drugs to block the spread of malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bertrand Boisson
- Institut Pasteur, Biologie et Génétique du Paludisme, 75724 Paris, France.
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Slavic K, Krishna S, Derbyshire ET, Staines HM. Plasmodial sugar transporters as anti-malarial drug targets and comparisons with other protozoa. Malar J 2011; 10:165. [PMID: 21676209 PMCID: PMC3135577 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-10-165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2011] [Accepted: 06/15/2011] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Glucose is the primary source of energy and a key substrate for most cells. Inhibition of cellular glucose uptake (the first step in its utilization) has, therefore, received attention as a potential therapeutic strategy to treat various unrelated diseases including malaria and cancers. For malaria, blood forms of parasites rely almost entirely on glycolysis for energy production and, without energy stores, they are dependent on the constant uptake of glucose. Plasmodium falciparum is the most dangerous human malarial parasite and its hexose transporter has been identified as being the major glucose transporter. In this review, recent progress regarding the validation and development of the P. falciparum hexose transporter as a drug target is described, highlighting the importance of robust target validation through both chemical and genetic methods. Therapeutic targeting potential of hexose transporters of other protozoan pathogens is also reviewed and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ksenija Slavic
- Centre for Infection, Division of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, St. George's, University of London, Cranmer Terrace, London SW17 0RE, UK.
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Use of a selective inhibitor to define the chemotherapeutic potential of the plasmodial hexose transporter in different stages of the parasite's life cycle. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2011; 55:2824-30. [PMID: 21402842 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01739-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
During blood infection, malarial parasites use D-glucose as their main energy source. The Plasmodium falciparum hexose transporter (PfHT), which mediates the uptake of D-glucose into parasites, is essential for survival of asexual blood-stage parasites. Recently, genetic studies in the rodent malaria model, Plasmodium berghei, found that the orthologous hexose transporter (PbHT) is expressed throughout the parasite's development within the mosquito vector, in addition to being essential during intraerythrocytic development. Here, using a D-glucose-derived specific inhibitor of plasmodial hexose transporters, compound 3361, we have investigated the importance of D-glucose uptake during liver and transmission stages of P. berghei. Initially, we confirmed the expression of PbHT during liver stage development, using a green fluorescent protein (GFP) tagging strategy. Compound 3361 inhibited liver-stage parasite development, with a 50% inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) of 11 μM. This process was insensitive to the external D-glucose concentration. In addition, compound 3361 inhibited ookinete development and microgametogenesis, with IC₅₀s in the region of 250 μM (the latter in a D-glucose-sensitive manner). Consistent with our findings for the effect of compound 3361 on vector parasite stages, 1 mM compound 3361 demonstrated transmission blocking activity. These data indicate that novel chemotherapeutic interventions that target PfHT may be active against liver and, to a lesser extent, transmission stages, in addition to blood stages.
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Déchamps S, Shastri S, Wengelnik K, Vial HJ. Glycerophospholipid acquisition in Plasmodium - a puzzling assembly of biosynthetic pathways. Int J Parasitol 2010; 40:1347-65. [PMID: 20600072 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2010.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2010] [Revised: 05/24/2010] [Accepted: 05/25/2010] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Throughout the Plasmodium life cycle, malaria parasites repeatedly undergo rapid cellular growth and prolific divisions, necessitating intense membrane neogenesis and, in particular, the acquisition of high amounts of phospholipids. At the intraerythrocytic stage, glycerophospholipids are the main parasite membrane constituents, which mostly originate from the Plasmodium-encoded enzymatic machinery. Several proteins and entire pathways have been characterized and their features reported, thereby generating a global view of glycerophospholipid synthesis across Plasmodium spp. The malaria parasite displays a panoply of pathways that are seldom found together in a single organism. The major glycerophospholipids are synthesized via ancestral prokaryotic CDP-diacylglycerol-dependent pathways and eukaryotic-type de novo pathways. The parasite exhibits additional reactions that bridge some of these routes and are otherwise restricted to some organisms, such as plants, while base-exchange mechanisms are largely unexplored in Plasmodium. Marked differences between Plasmodium spp. have also been reported in phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine synthesis. Little is currently known about glycerophospholipid acquisition at non-erythrocytic stages, but recent data reveal that intrahepatocytic parasites, oocysts and sporozoites import various host lipids, and that de novo fatty acid synthesis is only crucial at the late liver stage. More studies on the different Plasmodium developmental stages are needed, to further assemble the different pieces of this glycerophospholipid synthesis puzzle, which contains highly promising therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandrine Déchamps
- Dynamique des Interactions Membranaires Normales et Pathologiques, UMR 5235, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) - Universite Montpellier 2, cc 107, Place Eugene Bataillon, 34095 Montpellier Cedex 05, France
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