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Lespine A, Blancfuney C, Prichard R, Alberich M. P-glycoproteins in anthelmintic safety, efficacy, and resistance. Trends Parasitol 2024; 40:896-913. [PMID: 39168719 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2024.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2024] [Revised: 07/17/2024] [Accepted: 07/17/2024] [Indexed: 08/23/2024]
Abstract
P-glycoprotein (PGP) is a pivotal transmembrane transporter governing the cellular flux of diverse substances shielding mammals from toxics. It can thwart the effectiveness of medicines such as ivermectin (IVM) and other macrocyclic lactone (ML) anthelmintics, undermining therapeutic efforts. We analyze the role of PGPs in limiting the toxicity of these drugs in hosts, and their potential contribution to anthelmintic resistance in nematodes. Targeting nematode PGPs to increase drug sensitivity to MLs seems interesting, but is hampered by the lack of selective inhibitors. The nuclear hormone receptor (NHR)-8 should be seriously considered as a target because it upregulates multiple PGPs involved in anthelmintic resistance and it is specific to nematodes. This would advance our understanding of host-pathogen dynamics and foster innovative therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Lespine
- INTHERES, Université de Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, Toulouse, France.
| | | | - Roger Prichard
- Institute of Parasitology, McGill University, Ste Anne-de-Bellevue, Canada
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2
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Collins JB, Stone SA, Koury EJ, Paredes AG, Shao F, Lovato C, Chen M, Shi R, Li AY, Candal I, Al Moutaa K, Moya ND, Andersen EC. Quantitative tests of albendazole resistance in Caenorhabditis elegans beta-tubulin mutants. Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist 2024; 25:100556. [PMID: 38991432 PMCID: PMC11296247 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2024.100556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2024] [Revised: 07/05/2024] [Accepted: 07/06/2024] [Indexed: 07/13/2024]
Abstract
Benzimidazole (BZ) anthelmintics are among the most important treatments for parasitic nematode infections in the developing world. Widespread BZ resistance in veterinary parasites and emerging resistance in human parasites raise major concerns for the continued use of BZs. Knowledge of the mechanisms of resistance is necessary to make informed treatment decisions and circumvent resistance. Benzimidazole resistance has traditionally been associated with mutations and natural variants in the C. elegans beta-tubulin gene ben-1 and orthologs in parasitic species. However, variants in ben-1 alone do not explain the differences in BZ responses across parasite populations. Here, we examined the roles of five C. elegans beta-tubulin genes (tbb-1, mec-7, tbb-4, ben-1, and tbb-6) in the BZ response as well as to determine if another beta-tubulin acts redundantly with ben-1. We generated C. elegans strains with a loss of each beta-tubulin gene, as well as strains with a loss of tbb-1, mec-7, tbb-4, or tbb-6 in a genetic background that also lacks ben-1. We found that the loss of ben-1 conferred the maximum level of resistance following exposure to a single concentration of albendazole, and the loss of a second beta-tubulin gene did not alter the level of resistance. However, additional traits other than larval development could be affected by the loss of additional beta-tubulins, and the roles of other beta-tubulin genes might be revealed at different albendazole concentrations. Therefore, further work is needed to fully define the possible roles of other beta-tubulin genes in the BZ response.
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Affiliation(s)
- J B Collins
- Department of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21218, USA
| | - Skyler A Stone
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Emily J Koury
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Anna G Paredes
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Fiona Shao
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Crystal Lovato
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Michael Chen
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Richelle Shi
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Anwyn Y Li
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Isa Candal
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Khadija Al Moutaa
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Nicolas D Moya
- Department of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21218, USA
| | - Erik C Andersen
- Department of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21218, USA.
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3
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Shaver AO, Miller IR, Schaye ES, Moya ND, Collins JB, Wit J, Blanco AH, Shao FM, Andersen EJ, Khan SA, Paredes G, Andersen EC. Quantifying the fitness effects of resistance alleles with and without anthelmintic selection pressure using Caenorhabditis elegans. PLoS Pathog 2024; 20:e1012245. [PMID: 38768235 PMCID: PMC11142691 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1012245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2024] [Revised: 05/31/2024] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Albendazole (a benzimidazole) and ivermectin (a macrocyclic lactone) are the two most commonly co-administered anthelmintic drugs in mass-drug administration programs worldwide. Despite emerging resistance, we do not fully understand the mechanisms of resistance to these drugs nor the consequences of delivering them in combination. Albendazole resistance has primarily been attributed to variation in the drug target, a beta-tubulin gene. Ivermectin targets glutamate-gated chloride channels (GluCls), but it is unknown whether GluCl genes are involved in ivermectin resistance in nature. Using Caenorhabditis elegans, we defined the fitness costs associated with loss of the drug target genes singly or in combinations of the genes that encode GluCl subunits. We quantified the loss-of-function effects on three traits: (i) multi-generational competitive fitness, (ii) fecundity, and (iii) development. In competitive fitness and development assays, we found that a deletion of the beta-tubulin gene ben-1 conferred albendazole resistance, but ivermectin resistance required the loss of two GluCl genes (avr-14 and avr-15). The fecundity assays revealed that loss of ben-1 did not provide any fitness benefit in albendazole conditions and that no GluCl deletion mutants were resistant to ivermectin. Next, we searched for evidence of multi-drug resistance across the three traits. Loss of ben-1 did not confer resistance to ivermectin, nor did loss of any single GluCl subunit or combination confer resistance to albendazole. Finally, we assessed the development of 124 C. elegans wild strains across six benzimidazoles and seven macrocyclic lactones to identify evidence of multi-drug resistance between the two drug classes and found a strong phenotypic correlation within a drug class but not across drug classes. Because each gene affects various aspects of nematode physiology, these results suggest that it is necessary to assess multiple fitness traits to evaluate how each gene contributes to anthelmintic resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda O. Shaver
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
- Dept. of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Isabella R. Miller
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Etta S. Schaye
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Nicolas D. Moya
- Dept. of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - J. B. Collins
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
- Dept. of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Janneke Wit
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Alyssa H. Blanco
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Fiona M. Shao
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Elliot J. Andersen
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Sharik A. Khan
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Gracie Paredes
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Erik C. Andersen
- Dept. of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
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4
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Collins J, Stone SA, Koury EJ, Paredes AG, Shao F, Lovato C, Chen M, Shi R, Li AY, Candal I, Al Moutaa K, Moya N, Andersen EC. Quantitative tests of albendazole resistance in beta-tubulin mutants. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.04.11.589070. [PMID: 38665774 PMCID: PMC11044196 DOI: 10.1101/2024.04.11.589070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
Benzimidazole (BZ) anthelmintics are among the most important treatments for parasitic nematode infections in the developing world. Widespread BZ resistance in veterinary parasites and emerging resistance in human parasites raise major concerns for the continued use of BZs. Knowledge of the mechanisms of resistance is necessary to make informed treatment decisions and circumvent resistance. Benzimidazole resistance has traditionally been associated with mutations and natural variants in the C. elegans beta-tubulin gene ben-1 and orthologs in parasitic species. However, variants in ben-1 alone do not explain the differences in BZ responses across parasite populations. Here, we examine the roles of five C. elegans beta-tubulin genes (tbb-1, mec-7, tbb-4, ben-1, and tbb-6) to identify the role each gene plays in BZ response. We generated C. elegans strains with a loss of each beta-tubulin gene, as well as strains with a loss of tbb-1, mec-7, tbb-4, or tbb-6 in a genetic background that also lacks ben-1 to test beta-tubulin redundancy in BZ response. We found that only the individual loss of ben-1 conferred a substantial level of BZ resistance, although the loss of tbb-1 was found to confer a small benefit in the presence of albendazole (ABZ). The loss of ben-1 was found to confer an almost complete rescue of animal development in the presence of 30 μM ABZ, likely explaining why no additive effects caused by the loss of a second beta-tubulin were observed. We demonstrate that ben-1 is the only beta-tubulin gene in C. elegans where loss confers substantial BZ resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- J.B. Collins
- Department of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21218, USA
| | - Skyler A. Stone
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Emily J. Koury
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Anna G. Paredes
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Fiona Shao
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Crystal Lovato
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Michael Chen
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Richelle Shi
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Anwyn Y. Li
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Isa Candal
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Khadija Al Moutaa
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Nicolas Moya
- Department of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21218, USA
| | - Erik C. Andersen
- Department of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21218, USA
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5
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Wolstenholme AJ, Andersen EC, Choudhary S, Ebner F, Hartmann S, Holden-Dye L, Kashyap SS, Krücken J, Martin RJ, Midha A, Nejsum P, Neveu C, Robertson AP, von Samson-Himmelstjerna G, Walker R, Wang J, Whitehead BJ, Williams PDE. Getting around the roundworms: Identifying knowledge gaps and research priorities for the ascarids. ADVANCES IN PARASITOLOGY 2024; 123:51-123. [PMID: 38448148 PMCID: PMC11143470 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apar.2023.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/08/2024]
Abstract
The ascarids are a large group of parasitic nematodes that infect a wide range of animal species. In humans, they cause neglected diseases of poverty; many animal parasites also cause zoonotic infections in people. Control measures include hygiene and anthelmintic treatments, but they are not always appropriate or effective and this creates a continuing need to search for better ways to reduce the human, welfare and economic costs of these infections. To this end, Le Studium Institute of Advanced Studies organized a two-day conference to identify major gaps in our understanding of ascarid parasites with a view to setting research priorities that would allow for improved control. The participants identified several key areas for future focus, comprising of advances in genomic analysis and the use of model organisms, especially Caenorhabditis elegans, a more thorough appreciation of the complexity of host-parasite (and parasite-parasite) communications, a search for novel anthelmintic drugs and the development of effective vaccines. The participants agreed to try and maintain informal links in the future that could form the basis for collaborative projects, and to co-operate to organize future meetings and workshops to promote ascarid research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian J Wolstenholme
- Institut National de Recherche pour l'Agriculture, l'Alimentation et l'Environnement (INRAE), Université de Tours, ISP, Nouzilly, France.
| | - Erik C Andersen
- Department of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Shivani Choudhary
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Friederike Ebner
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Technische Universität München, Freising, Germany
| | - Susanne Hartmann
- Institute for Immunology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Lindy Holden-Dye
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Sudhanva S Kashyap
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Jürgen Krücken
- Institute for Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Richard J Martin
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Ankur Midha
- Institute for Immunology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Peter Nejsum
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Cedric Neveu
- Institut National de Recherche pour l'Agriculture, l'Alimentation et l'Environnement (INRAE), Université de Tours, ISP, Nouzilly, France
| | - Alan P Robertson
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | | | - Robert Walker
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Jianbin Wang
- Department of Biochemistry & Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, United States
| | | | - Paul D E Williams
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
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6
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Reyes-Guerrero DE, Higuera-Piedrahita RI, Maza-Lopez J, Mendoza-de-Gives P, Camas-Pereyra R, López-Arellano ME. Analysis of P-gp genes relative expression associated to ivermectin resistance in Haemonchus contortus larval stages from in vitro cultures (L 3 and xL 3) and from gerbils ( Meriones unguiculatus) (L 4) as models of study. J Helminthol 2024; 98:e19. [PMID: 38356358 DOI: 10.1017/s0022149x24000087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/16/2024]
Abstract
The aim of the study was to compare the relative gene expression of Haemonchus contortus P-glycoprotein genes (Hco-pgp) between fourth (L4), infective (L3), and transitory infective (xL3) larval stages as laboratory models to study ivermectin (IVM) resistance. The H. contortus resistant to IVM (IVMr) and susceptible to IVM (IVMs) strains were used to develop xL3in vitro culture and to infect Meriones unguiculatus (gerbils) to collect L4 stages. Morphometric differences were evaluated from 25 individuals of H. contortus from each strain. Relative gene expression from xL3 and L4 was determined between comparison of IVMr stages and from IVMr vs IVMs stages. Seven Hco-pgp genes (1, 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, and 16) were analysed by RT-qPCR using L3 stage as control group, per strain, and GAPDH and β-tubulin as constitutive genes. Morphological changes were confirmed between xL3 and L4 developing oral shape, oesophagus, and intestinal tube. In addition, the body length and width showed statistical differences (p < 0.05). The Hco-pgp1, 2, 3, and 4 genes (p < 0.05) were upregulated from 7.1- to 463.82-fold changes between IVMr stages, and Hco-pgp9 (13.12-fold) and Hco-pgp10 (13.56-fold) genes showed differences between L4 and xL3, respectively. The comparative study between IVMr vs IVMs strains associated to xL3 and L4 displayed significant upregulation for most of the Hco-pgp genes among 4.89-188.71 fold-change. In conclusion, these results suggest the use of H. contortus xL3 and L4 as suitable laboratory models to study IVMr associated with Hco-pgp genes to contribute to the understanding of anthelmintic resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- D E Reyes-Guerrero
- Centro Nacional de Investigación Disciplinaria en Salud Animal e Inocuidad, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias, Carr. Fed. Cuernavaca-Cuautla 8534, C.P. 62574 Jiutepec, Mor., México
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, Ciudad de México, C.P. 04510, México
| | - R I Higuera-Piedrahita
- Facultad de Estudios Superiores Cuautitlán, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuautitlán-Teoloyucan Km 2.5, Col. San Sebastián Xhala. Cuautitlán, Estado de México, México
| | - J Maza-Lopez
- Centro Nacional de Investigación Disciplinaria en Salud Animal e Inocuidad, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias, Carr. Fed. Cuernavaca-Cuautla 8534, C.P. 62574 Jiutepec, Mor., México
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, Ciudad de México, C.P. 04510, México
| | - P Mendoza-de-Gives
- Centro Nacional de Investigación Disciplinaria en Salud Animal e Inocuidad, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias, Carr. Fed. Cuernavaca-Cuautla 8534, C.P. 62574 Jiutepec, Mor., México
| | - R Camas-Pereyra
- Centro Nacional de Investigación Disciplinaria en Salud Animal e Inocuidad, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias, Carr. Fed. Cuernavaca-Cuautla 8534, C.P. 62574 Jiutepec, Mor., México
| | - M E López-Arellano
- Centro Nacional de Investigación Disciplinaria en Salud Animal e Inocuidad, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias, Carr. Fed. Cuernavaca-Cuautla 8534, C.P. 62574 Jiutepec, Mor., México
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7
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Shaver AO, Miller IR, Schaye ES, Moya ND, Collins J, Wit J, Blanco AH, Shao FM, Andersen EJ, Khan SA, Paredes G, Andersen EC. Quantifying the fitness effects of resistance alleles with and without anthelmintic selection pressure using Caenorhabditis elegans. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.02.01.578300. [PMID: 38370666 PMCID: PMC10871296 DOI: 10.1101/2024.02.01.578300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/20/2024]
Abstract
Albendazole and ivermectin are the two most commonly co-administered anthelmintic drugs in mass-drug administration programs worldwide. Despite emerging resistance, we do not fully understand the mechanisms of resistance to these drugs nor the consequences of delivering them in combination. Albendazole resistance has primarily been attributed to variation in the drug target, a beta-tubulin gene. Ivermectin targets glutamate-gated chloride channel (GluCl) genes, but it is unknown whether these genes are involved in ivermectin resistance in nature. Using Caenorhabditis elegans, we defined the fitness costs associated with loss of the drug target genes singly or in combinations of the genes that encode GluCl subunits. We quantified the loss-of function effects on three traits: (i) multi-generational competitive fitness, (ii) fecundity, and (iii) development. In competitive fitness and development assays, we found that a deletion of the beta-tubulin gene ben-1 conferred albendazole resistance, but ivermectin resistance required loss of two GluCl genes (avr-14 and avr-15) or loss of three GluCl genes (avr-14, avr-15, and glc-1). The fecundity assays revealed that loss of ben-1 did not provide any fitness benefit in albendazole and that no GluCl deletion mutants were resistant to ivermectin. Next, we searched for evidence of multi-drug resistance across the three traits. Loss of ben-1 did not confer resistance to ivermectin, nor did loss of any single GluCl subunit or combination confer resistance to albendazole. Finally, we assessed the development of 124 C. elegans wild strains across six benzimidazoles and seven macrocyclic lactones to identify evidence of multi-drug resistance between the two drug classes and found a strong phenotypic correlation within a drug class but not across drug classes. Because each gene affects various aspects of nematode physiology, these results suggest that it is necessary to assess multiple fitness traits to evaluate how each gene contributes to anthelmintic resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda O. Shaver
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Isabella R. Miller
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Etta S. Schaye
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Nicolas D. Moya
- Dept. of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - J.B. Collins
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Janneke Wit
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Alyssa H. Blanco
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Fiona M. Shao
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Elliot J. Andersen
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Sharik A. Khan
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Gracie Paredes
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Erik C. Andersen
- Dept. of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
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8
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Ng'etich AI, Amoah ID, Bux F, Kumari S. Anthelmintic resistance in soil-transmitted helminths: One-Health considerations. Parasitol Res 2023; 123:62. [PMID: 38114766 PMCID: PMC10730643 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-023-08088-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
The One-Health approach recognizes the intricate connection between human, animal, and environmental health, and that cooperative effort from various professionals provides comprehensive awareness and potential solutions for issues relating to the health of people, animals, and the environment. This approach has increasingly gained appeal as the standard strategy for tackling emerging infectious diseases, most of which are zoonoses. Treatment with anthelmintics (AHs) without a doubt minimizes the severe consequences of soil-transmitted helminths (STHs); however, evidence of anthelmintic resistance (AR) development to different helminths of practically every animal species and the distinct groups of AHs is overwhelming globally. In this regard, the correlation between the application of anthelmintic drugs in both human and animal populations and the consequent development of anthelmintic resistance in STHs within the context of a One-Health framework is explored. This review provides an overview of the major human and animal STHs, treatment of the STHs, AR development and drug-related factors contributing towards AR, One-Health and STHs, and an outline of some One-Health strategies that may be used in combating AR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annette Imali Ng'etich
- Institute for Water and Wastewater Technology, Durban University of Technology (DUT), Durban, South Africa
| | - Isaac Dennis Amoah
- Institute for Water and Wastewater Technology, Durban University of Technology (DUT), Durban, South Africa
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Faizal Bux
- Institute for Water and Wastewater Technology, Durban University of Technology (DUT), Durban, South Africa
| | - Sheena Kumari
- Institute for Water and Wastewater Technology, Durban University of Technology (DUT), Durban, South Africa.
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9
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Rehborg EG, Wheeler NJ, Zamanian M. Mapping resistance-associated anthelmintic interactions in the model nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2023; 17:e0011705. [PMID: 37883578 PMCID: PMC10629664 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0011705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 10/07/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Parasitic nematodes infect billions of people and are mainly controlled by anthelmintic mass drug administration (MDA). While there are growing efforts to better understand mechanisms of anthelmintic resistance in human and animal populations, it is unclear how resistance mechanisms that alter susceptibility to one drug affect the interactions and efficacy of drugs used in combination. Mutations that alter drug permeability across primary nematode barriers have been identified as potential resistance mechanisms using the model nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. We leveraged high-throughput assays in this model system to measure altered anthelmintic susceptibility in response to genetic perturbations of potential cuticular, amphidial, and alimentary routes of drug entry. Mutations in genes associated with these tissue barriers differentially altered susceptibility to the major anthelmintic classes (macrocyclic lactones, benzimidazoles, and nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonists) as measured by animal development. We investigated two-way anthelmintic interactions across C. elegans genetic backgrounds that confer resistance or hypersensitivity to one or more drugs. We observe that genetic perturbations that alter susceptibility to a single drug can shift the drug interaction landscape and lead to the appearance of novel synergistic and antagonistic interactions. This work establishes a framework for investigating combinatorial therapies in model nematodes that can potentially be translated to amenable parasite species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena G. Rehborg
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Microbiology Doctoral Training Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Nicolas J. Wheeler
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Mostafa Zamanian
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
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10
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Wit J, Dilks CM, Zhang G, Guisbert KSK, Zdraljevic S, Guisbert E, Andersen EC. Praziquantel inhibits Caenorhabditis elegans development and species-wide differences might be cct-8-dependent. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0286473. [PMID: 37561720 PMCID: PMC10414639 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0286473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Accepted: 07/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Anthelmintic drugs are used to treat parasitic roundworm and flatworm infections in humans and other animals. Caenorhabditis elegans is an established model to investigate anthelmintics used to treat roundworms. In this study, we use C. elegans to examine the mode of action and the mechanisms of resistance against the flatworm anthelmintic drug praziquantel (PZQ), used to treat trematode and cestode infections. We found that PZQ inhibited development and that this developmental delay varies by genetic background. Interestingly, both enantiomers of PZQ are equally effective against C. elegans, but the right-handed PZQ (R-PZQ) is most effective against schistosome infections. We conducted a genome-wide association mapping with 74 wild C. elegans strains to identify a region on chromosome IV that is correlated with differential PZQ susceptibility. Five candidate genes in this region: cct-8, znf-782, Y104H12D.4, Y104H12D.2, and cox-18, might underlie this variation. The gene cct-8, a subunit of the protein folding complex TRiC, has variation that causes a putative protein coding change (G226V), which is correlated with reduced developmental delay. Gene expression analysis suggests that this variant correlates with slightly increased expression of both cct-8 and hsp-70. Acute exposure to PZQ caused increased expression of hsp-70, indicating that altered TRiC function might be involved in PZQ responses. To test if this variant affects development upon exposure to PZQ, we used CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing to introduce the V226 allele into the N2 genetic background (G226) and the G226 allele into the JU775 genetic background (V226). These experiments revealed that this variant was not sufficient to explain the effects of PZQ on development. Nevertheless, this study shows that C. elegans can be used to study PZQ mode of action and resistance mechanisms. Additionally, we show that the TRiC complex requires further evaluation for PZQ responses in C. elegans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janneke Wit
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, United States of America
| | - Clayton M. Dilks
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, United States of America
- Interdisciplinary Biological Sciences Program, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, United States of America
| | - Gaotian Zhang
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, United States of America
| | - Karen S. Kim Guisbert
- Department of Biomedical and Chemical Engineering and Sciences, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL, United States of America
| | - Stefan Zdraljevic
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, United States of America
- Interdisciplinary Biological Sciences Program, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, United States of America
| | - Eric Guisbert
- Department of Biomedical and Chemical Engineering and Sciences, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL, United States of America
| | - Erik C. Andersen
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, United States of America
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11
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Zheng Y, Young ND, Song J, Gasser RB. Genome-Wide Analysis of Haemonchus contortus Proteases and Protease Inhibitors Using Advanced Informatics Provides Insights into Parasite Biology and Host-Parasite Interactions. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:12320. [PMID: 37569696 PMCID: PMC10418638 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241512320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Revised: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Biodiversity within the animal kingdom is associated with extensive molecular diversity. The expansion of genomic, transcriptomic and proteomic data sets for invertebrate groups and species with unique biological traits necessitates reliable in silico tools for the accurate identification and annotation of molecules and molecular groups. However, conventional tools are inadequate for lesser-known organismal groups, such as eukaryotic pathogens (parasites), so that improved approaches are urgently needed. Here, we established a combined sequence- and structure-based workflow system to harness well-curated publicly available data sets and resources to identify, classify and annotate proteases and protease inhibitors of a highly pathogenic parasitic roundworm (nematode) of global relevance, called Haemonchus contortus (barber's pole worm). This workflow performed markedly better than conventional, sequence-based classification and annotation alone and allowed the first genome-wide characterisation of protease and protease inhibitor genes and gene products in this worm. In total, we identified 790 genes encoding 860 proteases and protease inhibitors representing 83 gene families. The proteins inferred included 280 metallo-, 145 cysteine, 142 serine, 121 aspartic and 81 "mixed" proteases as well as 91 protease inhibitors, all of which had marked physicochemical diversity and inferred involvements in >400 biological processes or pathways. A detailed investigation revealed a remarkable expansion of some protease or inhibitor gene families, which are likely linked to parasitism (e.g., host-parasite interactions, immunomodulation and blood-feeding) and exhibit stage- or sex-specific transcription profiles. This investigation provides a solid foundation for detailed explorations of the structures and functions of proteases and protease inhibitors of H. contortus and related nematodes, and it could assist in the discovery of new drug or vaccine targets against infections or diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanting Zheng
- Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Science, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia;
| | - Neil D. Young
- Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Science, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia;
| | - Jiangning Song
- Department of Data Science and AI, Faculty of IT, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia;
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
- Monash Data Futures Institute, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Robin B. Gasser
- Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Science, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia;
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12
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Collins JB, Andersen EC. The turkey ascarid, Ascaridia dissimilis, as a model genetic system. Int J Parasitol 2023; 53:405-409. [PMID: 36549442 PMCID: PMC10258144 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2022.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Revised: 10/02/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Parasitic nematodes cause significant effects on humans each year, with the most prevalent being Ascaris lumbricoides. Benzimidazoles (BZ) are the most widely used anthelmintic drug in humans, and although the biology of resistance to this drug class is understood in some species, resistance is poorly characterized in ascarids. Models such as Caenorhabditis elegans were essential in developing our current understanding of BZ resistance, but more closely related model nematodes are needed to understand resistance in ascarids. Here, we propose a new ascarid model species that infects turkeys, Ascaridia dissimilis, to develop a better understanding of BZ resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- J B Collins
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Erik C Andersen
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA.
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13
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Rehborg EG, Wheeler NJ, Zamanian M. Mapping resistance-associated anthelmintic interactions in the model nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.04.26.538424. [PMID: 37163071 PMCID: PMC10168335 DOI: 10.1101/2023.04.26.538424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Parasitic nematodes infect billions of people and are mainly controlled by anthelmintic mass drug administration (MDA). While there are growing efforts to better understand mechanisms of anthelmintic resistance in human and animal populations, it is unclear how resistance mechanisms that alter susceptibility to one drug affect the interactions and efficacy of drugs used in combination. Mutations that alter drug permeability across primary nematode barriers have been identified as potential resistance mechanisms using the model nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. We leveraged high-throughput assays in this model system to measure altered anthelmintic susceptibility in response to genetic perturbations of potential cuticular, amphidial, and alimentary routes of drug entry. Mutations in genes associated with these tissue barriers differentially altered susceptibility to the major anthelmintic classes (macrocyclic lactones, benzimidazoles, and nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonists) as measured by animal development. We investigated two-way anthelmintic interactions across C. elegans genetic backgrounds that confer resistance or hypersensitivity to one or more drugs. We observe that genetic perturbations that alter susceptibility to a single drug can shift the drug interaction landscape and lead to the appearance of novel synergistic and antagonistic interactions. This work establishes a framework for investigating combinatorial therapies in model nematodes that can potentially be translated to amenable parasite species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena G. Rehborg
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI USA
- Microbiology Doctoral Training Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI USA
| | - Nicolas J Wheeler
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI USA
| | - Mostafa Zamanian
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI USA
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14
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Shaver AO, Wit J, Dilks CM, Crombie TA, Li H, Aroian RV, Andersen EC. Variation in anthelmintic responses are driven by genetic differences among diverse C. elegans wild strains. PLoS Pathog 2023; 19:e1011285. [PMID: 37011090 PMCID: PMC10101645 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Revised: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/08/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Treatment of parasitic nematode infections in humans and livestock relies on a limited arsenal of anthelmintic drugs that have historically reduced parasite burdens. However, anthelmintic resistance (AR) is increasing, and little is known about the molecular and genetic causes of resistance for most drugs. The free-living roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans has proven to be a tractable model to understand AR, where studies have led to the identification of molecular targets of all major anthelmintic drug classes. Here, we used genetically diverse C. elegans strains to perform dose-response analyses across 26 anthelmintic drugs that represent the three major anthelmintic drug classes (benzimidazoles, macrocyclic lactones, and nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonists) in addition to seven other anthelmintic classes. First, we found that C. elegans strains displayed similar anthelmintic responses within drug classes and significant variation across drug classes. Next, we compared the effective concentration estimates to induce a 10% maximal response (EC10) and slope estimates of each dose-response curve of each strain to the laboratory reference strain, which enabled the identification of anthelmintics with population-wide differences to understand how genetics contribute to AR. Because genetically diverse strains displayed differential susceptibilities within and across anthelmintics, we show that C. elegans is a useful model for screening potential nematicides before applications to helminths. Third, we quantified the levels of anthelmintic response variation caused by genetic differences among individuals (heritability) to each drug and observed a significant correlation between exposure closest to the EC10 and the exposure that exhibited the most heritable responses. These results suggest drugs to prioritize in genome-wide association studies, which will enable the identification of AR genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda O. Shaver
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Janneke Wit
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Clayton M. Dilks
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Timothy A. Crombie
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Hanchen Li
- Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Raffi V. Aroian
- Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Erik C. Andersen
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
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15
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Mengarda AC, Silva TC, Silva AS, Roquini DB, Fernandes JPS, de Moraes J. Toward anthelmintic drug candidates for toxocariasis: Challenges and recent developments. Eur J Med Chem 2023; 251:115268. [PMID: 36921525 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2023.115268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2022] [Revised: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/07/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
Abstract
Infections caused by parasitic helminths rank among the most prevalent infections of humans and animals. Toxocariasis, caused by nematodes of the genus Toxocara, is one of the most widespread and economically important zoonotic parasitic infections that humans share with dogs and cats. Despite the completion of the Toxocara canis draft genome project, which has been an important step towards advancing the understanding of this parasite and the search for drug targets, the treatment of toxocariasis has been dependent on a limited set of drugs, necessitating the search for novel anthelmintic agents, specially against Toxocara larvae in tissues. Given that research, development, and innovation are crucial to finding appropriate solutions in the fight against helminthiasis, this paper reviews the progress made in the discovery of anthelmintic drug candidates for toxocariasis. The main compounds reported in the recent years regards on analogues of albendazole, reactive quinone derivatives and natural produts and its analogues. Nanoparticles and formulations were also reviewed. The in vitro and/or in vivo anthelmintic properties of such alternatives are herein discussed as well as the opportunities and challenges for treatment of human toxocariasis. The performed review clarify that the scarcity of validated molecular targets and limited chemical space explored are the main bottlenecks for advancing in the field of anti-Toxocara agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana C Mengarda
- Research Center on Neglected Diseases, Guarulhos University, Praça Tereza Cristina 229, 07023-070, Guarulhos, SP, Brazil.
| | - Tais C Silva
- Research Center on Neglected Diseases, Guarulhos University, Praça Tereza Cristina 229, 07023-070, Guarulhos, SP, Brazil.
| | - Aline S Silva
- Research Center on Neglected Diseases, Guarulhos University, Praça Tereza Cristina 229, 07023-070, Guarulhos, SP, Brazil.
| | - Daniel B Roquini
- Research Center on Neglected Diseases, Guarulhos University, Praça Tereza Cristina 229, 07023-070, Guarulhos, SP, Brazil.
| | - João Paulo S Fernandes
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, campus Diadema, Rua São Nicolau 210, 09913-030, Diadema, SP, Brazil.
| | - Josué de Moraes
- Research Center on Neglected Diseases, Guarulhos University, Praça Tereza Cristina 229, 07023-070, Guarulhos, SP, Brazil.
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16
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Venkatesan A, Jimenez Castro PD, Morosetti A, Horvath H, Chen R, Redman E, Dunn K, Collins JB, Fraser JS, Andersen EC, Kaplan RM, Gilleard JS. Molecular evidence of widespread benzimidazole drug resistance in Ancylostoma caninum from domestic dogs throughout the USA and discovery of a novel β-tubulin benzimidazole resistance mutation. PLoS Pathog 2023; 19:e1011146. [PMID: 36862759 PMCID: PMC10013918 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2022] [Revised: 03/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Ancylostoma caninum is an important zoonotic gastrointestinal nematode of dogs worldwide and a close relative of human hookworms. We recently reported that racing greyhound dogs in the USA are infected with A. caninum that are commonly resistant to multiple anthelmintics. Benzimidazole resistance in A. caninum in greyhounds was associated with a high frequency of the canonical F167Y(TTC>TAC) isotype-1 β-tubulin mutation. In this work, we show that benzimidazole resistance is remarkably widespread in A. caninum from domestic dogs across the USA. First, we identified and showed the functional significance of a novel benzimidazole isotype-1 β-tubulin resistance mutation, Q134H(CAA>CAT). Several benzimidazole resistant A. caninum isolates from greyhounds with a low frequency of the F167Y(TTC>TAC) mutation had a high frequency of a Q134H(CAA>CAT) mutation not previously reported from any eukaryotic pathogen in the field. Structural modeling predicted that the Q134 residue is directly involved in benzimidazole drug binding and that the 134H substitution would significantly reduce binding affinity. Introduction of the Q134H substitution into the C. elegans β-tubulin gene ben-1, by CRISPR-Cas9 editing, conferred similar levels of resistance as a ben-1 null allele. Deep amplicon sequencing on A. caninum eggs from 685 hookworm positive pet dog fecal samples revealed that both mutations were widespread across the USA, with prevalences of 49.7% (overall mean frequency 54.0%) and 31.1% (overall mean frequency 16.4%) for F167Y(TTC>TAC) and Q134H(CAA>CAT), respectively. Canonical codon 198 and 200 benzimidazole resistance mutations were absent. The F167Y(TTC>TAC) mutation had a significantly higher prevalence and frequency in Western USA than in other regions, which we hypothesize is due to differences in refugia. This work has important implications for companion animal parasite control and the potential emergence of drug resistance in human hookworms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhinaya Venkatesan
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Host-Parasite Interactions Program, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Pablo D. Jimenez Castro
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
- Zoetis, Parsippany, New Jersey, United States of America
- Grupo de Parasitología Veterinaria, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia
| | - Arianna Morosetti
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Host-Parasite Interactions Program, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Hannah Horvath
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Host-Parasite Interactions Program, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Rebecca Chen
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Host-Parasite Interactions Program, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Elizabeth Redman
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Host-Parasite Interactions Program, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Kayla Dunn
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - James Bryant Collins
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - James S. Fraser
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Erik C. Andersen
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Ray M. Kaplan
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
- St. George’s University, School of Veterinary Medicine, Grenada, West Indies
| | - John S. Gilleard
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Host-Parasite Interactions Program, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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17
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Dube F, Hinas A, Delhomme N, Åbrink M, Svärd S, Tydén E. Transcriptomics of ivermectin response in Caenorhabditis elegans: Integrating abamectin quantitative trait loci and comparison to the Ivermectin-exposed DA1316 strain. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0285262. [PMID: 37141255 PMCID: PMC10159168 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0285262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Parasitic nematodes pose a significant threat to human and animal health, as well as cause economic losses in the agricultural sector. The use of anthelmintic drugs, such as Ivermectin (IVM), to control these parasites has led to widespread drug resistance. Identifying genetic markers of resistance in parasitic nematodes can be challenging, but the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans provides a suitable model. In this study, we aimed to analyze the transcriptomes of adult C. elegans worms of the N2 strain exposed to the anthelmintic drug Ivermectin (IVM), and compare them to those of the resistant strain DA1316 and the recently identified Abamectin Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL) on chromosome V. We exposed pools of 300 adult N2 worms to IVM (10-7 and 10-8 M) for 4 hours at 20°C, extracted total RNA and sequenced it on the Illumina NovaSeq6000 platform. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were determined using an in-house pipeline. The DEGs were compared to genes from a previous microarray study on IVM-resistant C. elegans and Abamectin-QTL. Our results revealed 615 DEGs (183 up-regulated and 432 down-regulated genes) from diverse gene families in the N2 C. elegans strain. Of these DEGs, 31 overlapped with genes from IVM-exposed adult worms of the DA1316 strain. We identified 19 genes, including the folate transporter (folt-2) and the transmembrane transporter (T22F3.11), which exhibited an opposite expression in N2 and the DA1316 strain and were deemed potential candidates. Additionally, we compiled a list of potential candidates for further research including T-type calcium channel (cca-1), potassium chloride cotransporter (kcc-2), as well as other genes such as glutamate-gated channel (glc-1) that mapped to the Abamectin-QTL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faruk Dube
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Division of Parasitology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Andrea Hinas
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Nicolas Delhomme
- Umeå Plant Science Centre (UPSC), Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Magnus Åbrink
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Section of Immunology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Staffan Svärd
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Eva Tydén
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Division of Parasitology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
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18
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The Prevalence of Trichinella spiralis in Domestic Pigs in China: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12243553. [PMID: 36552472 PMCID: PMC9774926 DOI: 10.3390/ani12243553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Revised: 12/10/2022] [Accepted: 12/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The meta-analysis was performed to assess the prevalence of T. spiralis in domestic pigs in China. The potential studies from seven databases (Pubmed, Web of science, Scopus, Google Scholar, CNKI, Wanfang, CBM) were searched. I2, Cochran's Q statistic and the funnel plot and Egger's test were used to assess heterogeneity and publication bias, respectively. In this study, a total of 179 articles were captured in the initially screened. Of these, we finally obtained 39 significant articles (including 43 studies involving in 551,097 pigs) for the final analysis. We calculated using a random-effects model, and we found the overall infection rate was 0.04 (95% CI 0.03-0.06). The highest prevalence region was Guangxi. The funnel plot and Egger's test showed no publication bias in our meta-analysis. In addition, this high heterogeneity index was suggestive of potential variations which could be due to regions, quality scores, detection methods, publication years, or samplings. These results indicated that T. spiralis were still prevalent in some areas in China. This highlights the need for an increased focus on implementing affordable, appropriate control programs to reduce economic losses and T. spiralis infection in domestic pigs in China.
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19
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Cadd LC, Crooks B, Marks NJ, Maule AG, Mousley A, Atkinson LE. The Strongyloides bioassay toolbox: A unique opportunity to accelerate functional biology for nematode parasites. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2022; 252:111526. [PMID: 36240960 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2022.111526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2022] [Revised: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Caenorhabditis elegans is a uniquely powerful tool to aid understanding of fundamental nematode biology. While C. elegans boasts an unrivalled array of functional genomics tools and phenotype bioassays the inherent differences between free-living and parasitic nematodes underscores the need to develop these approaches in tractable parasite models. Advances in functional genomics approaches, including RNA interference and CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing, in the parasitic nematodes Strongyloides ratti and Strongyloides stercoralis provide a unique and timely opportunity to probe basic parasite biology and reveal novel anthelmintic targets in species that are both experimentally and therapeutically relevant pathogens. While Strongyloides functional genomics tools have progressed rapidly, the complementary range of bioassays required to elucidate phenotypic outcomes post-functional genomics remain more limited in scope. To adequately support the exploitation of functional genomic pipelines for studies of gene function in Strongyloides a comprehensive set of species- and parasite-specific quantitative bioassays are required to assess nematode behaviours post-genetic manipulation. Here we review the scope of the current Strongyloides bioassay toolbox, how established Strongyloides bioassays have advanced knowledge of parasite biology, opportunities for Strongyloides bioassay development and, the need for investment in tractable model parasite platforms such as Strongyloides to drive the discovery of novel targets for parasite control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luke C Cadd
- Microbes & Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK
| | - Bethany Crooks
- Microbes & Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK
| | - Nikki J Marks
- Microbes & Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK
| | - Aaron G Maule
- Microbes & Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK
| | - Angela Mousley
- Microbes & Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK
| | - Louise E Atkinson
- Microbes & Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK.
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20
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Gibson SB, Ness-Cohn E, Andersen EC. Benzimidazoles cause lethality by inhibiting the function of Caenorhabditis elegans neuronal beta-tubulin. Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist 2022; 20:89-96. [PMID: 36332489 PMCID: PMC9771835 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2022.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Revised: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Parasitic nematode infections cause an enormous global burden to both humans and livestock. Resistance to the limited arsenal of anthelmintic drugs used to combat these infections is widespread, including benzimidazole (BZ) compounds. Previous studies using the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans to model parasitic nematode resistance have shown that loss-of-function mutations in the beta-tubulin gene ben-1 confer resistance to BZ drugs. However, the mechanism of resistance and the tissue-specific susceptibility are not well known in any nematode species. To identify in which tissue(s) ben-1 function underlies BZ susceptibility, transgenic strains that express ben-1 in different tissues, including hypodermis, muscles, neurons, intestine, and ubiquitous expression were generated. High-throughput fitness assays were performed to measure and compare the quantitative responses to BZ compounds among different transgenic lines. Significant BZ susceptibility was observed in animals expressing ben-1 in neurons, comparable to expression using the ben-1 promoter. This result suggests that ben-1 function in neurons underlies susceptibility to BZ. Subsetting neuronal expression of ben-1 based on the neurotransmitter system further restricted ben-1 function in cholinergic neurons to cause BZ susceptibility. These results better inform our current understanding of the cellular mode of action of BZs and also suggest additional treatments that might potentiate the effects of BZs in neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophia B. Gibson
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Elan Ness-Cohn
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA,Driskill Graduate Program in Life Sciences, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Erik C. Andersen
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA,Corresponding author. Department of Molecular Biosciences Northwestern University 4619 Silverman Hall 2205 Tech Drive Evanston, IL, 60208, USA.
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21
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Doyle SR, Laing R, Bartley D, Morrison A, Holroyd N, Maitland K, Antonopoulos A, Chaudhry U, Flis I, Howell S, McIntyre J, Gilleard JS, Tait A, Mable B, Kaplan R, Sargison N, Britton C, Berriman M, Devaney E, Cotton JA. Genomic landscape of drug response reveals mediators of anthelmintic resistance. Cell Rep 2022; 41:111522. [PMID: 36261007 PMCID: PMC9597552 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2022] [Revised: 07/11/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Like other pathogens, parasitic helminths can rapidly evolve resistance to drug treatment. Understanding the genetic basis of anthelmintic drug resistance in parasitic nematodes is key to tracking its spread and improving the efficacy and sustainability of parasite control. Here, we use an in vivo genetic cross between drug-susceptible and multi-drug-resistant strains of Haemonchus contortus in a natural host-parasite system to simultaneously map resistance loci for the three major classes of anthelmintics. This approach identifies new alleles for resistance to benzimidazoles and levamisole and implicates the transcription factor cky-1 in ivermectin resistance. This gene is within a locus under selection in ivermectin-resistant populations worldwide; expression analyses and functional validation using knockdown experiments support that cky-1 is associated with ivermectin survival. Our work demonstrates the feasibility of high-resolution forward genetics in a parasitic nematode and identifies variants for the development of molecular diagnostics to combat drug resistance in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen R Doyle
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridgeshire CB10 1SA, UK.
| | - Roz Laing
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK.
| | - David Bartley
- Moredun Research Institute, Penicuik, Midlothian EH26 0PZ, UK
| | - Alison Morrison
- Moredun Research Institute, Penicuik, Midlothian EH26 0PZ, UK
| | - Nancy Holroyd
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridgeshire CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Kirsty Maitland
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK
| | - Alistair Antonopoulos
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK
| | - Umer Chaudhry
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Ilona Flis
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK
| | - Sue Howell
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Jennifer McIntyre
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK
| | - John S Gilleard
- Department of Comparative Biology and Experimental Medicine, Host-Parasite Interactions Program, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Andy Tait
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK
| | - Barbara Mable
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK
| | - Ray Kaplan
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Neil Sargison
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Collette Britton
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK
| | | | - Eileen Devaney
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK
| | - James A Cotton
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridgeshire CB10 1SA, UK
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22
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Wit J, Workentine ML, Redman E, Laing R, Stevens L, Cotton JA, Chaudhry U, Ali Q, Andersen EC, Yeaman S, Wasmuth JD, Gilleard JS. Genomic signatures of selection associated with benzimidazole drug treatments in Haemonchus contortus field populations. Int J Parasitol 2022; 52:677-689. [PMID: 36113620 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2022.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Revised: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Genome-wide methods offer a powerful approach to detect signatures of drug selection. However, limited availability of suitable reference genomes and the difficulty of obtaining field populations with well-defined, distinct drug treatment histories mean there is little information on the signatures of selection in parasitic nematodes and on how best to detect them. This study addresses these knowledge gaps by using field populations of Haemonchus contortus with well-defined benzimidazole treatment histories, leveraging a recently completed chromosomal-scale reference genome assembly. We generated a panel of 49,393 genomic markers to genotype 20 individual adult worms from each of four H. contortus populations: two from closed sheep flocks with an approximate 20 year history of frequent benzimidazole treatment, and two populations with a history of little or no treatment. Sampling occurred in the same geographical region to limit genetic differentiation and maximise the detection sensitivity. A clear signature of selection was detected on chromosome I, centred on the isotype-1 β-tubulin gene. Two additional, but weaker, signatures of selection were detected; one near the middle of chromosome I spanning 3.75 Mbp and 259 annotated genes, and one on chromosome II spanning a region of 3.3 Mbp and 206 annotated genes, including the isotype-2 β-tubulin locus. We also assessed how sensitivity was impacted by sequencing depth, worm number, and pooled versus individual worm sequence data. This study provides the first known direct genome-wide evidence for any parasitic nematode, that the isotype-1 β-tubulin gene is quantitatively the single most important benzimidazole resistance locus. It also identified two additional genomic regions that likely contain benzimidazole resistance loci of secondary importance. This study provides an experimental framework to maximise the power of genome-wide approaches to detect signatures of selection driven by anthelmintic drug treatments in field populations of parasitic nematodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janneke Wit
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada; Host-Parasite Interactions (HPI) Program, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | | | - Elizabeth Redman
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Roz Laing
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Garscube Campus, Glasgow, UK
| | - Lewis Stevens
- Tree of Life, Wellcome Sanger Institute, Cambridge, UK
| | - James A Cotton
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridgeshire, UK
| | - Umer Chaudhry
- University of Edinburgh, Roslin Institute, Easter Bush Veterinary Centre, Roslin, Midlothian, UK
| | - Qasim Ali
- Department of Parasitology FVAS, University of Agriculture, D.I. Khan, Pakistan
| | - Erik C Andersen
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Samuel Yeaman
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - James D Wasmuth
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada; Host-Parasite Interactions (HPI) Program, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - John S Gilleard
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada; Host-Parasite Interactions (HPI) Program, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
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23
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Pallotto LM, Dilks CM, Park YJ, Smit RB, Lu B, Gopalakrishnan C, Gilleard JS, Andersen EC, Mains PE. Interactions of C. elegans β-tubulins with the microtubule inhibitor and anthelmintic drug albendazole. Genetics 2022; 221:6613138. [PMID: 35731216 DOI: 10.1093/genetics/iyac093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Parasitic nematodes are major human and agricultural pests, and benzimidazoles are amongst the most important broad spectrum anthelmintic drug class used for their control. Benzimidazole resistance is now widespread in many species of parasitic nematodes in livestock globally and an emerging concern for the sustainable control of human soil transmitted helminths. β-tubulin is the major benzimidazole target, although other genes may influence resistance. Among the six C. elegans β-tubulin genes, loss of ben-1 causes resistance without other apparent defects. Here, we explored the genetics of C. elegans β-tubulin genes in relation to the response to the benzimidazole derivative albendazole. The most highly expressed β-tubulin isotypes, encoded by tbb-1 and tbb-2, were known to be redundant with each other for viability, and their products are predicted not to bind benzimidazoles. We found that tbb-2 mutants, and to a lesser extent tbb-1 mutants, were hypersensitive to albendazole. The double mutant tbb-2 ben-1 is uncoordinated and short, resembling the wild type exposed to albendazole, but the tbb-1 ben-1 double mutant did not show the same phenotypes. These results suggest that tbb-2 is a modifier of ABZ sensitivity. To better understand how BEN-1 mutates to cause benzimidazole resistance, we isolated mutants resistant to albendazole and found that 15 of 16 mutations occurred in the ben-1 coding region. Mutations ranged from likely nulls to hypomorphs, and several corresponded to residues that cause resistance in other organisms. Null alleles of ben-1 are albendazole-resistant and BEN-1 shows high sequence identity with tubulins from other organisms, suggesting that many amino acid changes could cause resistance. However, our results suggest that missense mutations conferring resistance are not evenly distributed across all possible conserved sites. Independent of their roles in benzimidazole resistance, tbb-1 and tbb-2 may have specialized functions as null mutants of tbb-1 or tbb-2 were cold or heat sensitive, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda M Pallotto
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Clayton M Dilks
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA.,Interdisciplinary Biological Sciences Program, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Ye-Jean Park
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Ryan B Smit
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Brian Lu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N 4N1, Canada
| | | | - John S Gilleard
- Department of Comparative Biology and Experimental Medicine, Host-Parasite Interactions (HPI) Program, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Alberta, T2N 4N1 Canada
| | - Erik C Andersen
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Paul E Mains
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N 4N1, Canada
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24
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Roquini DB, Silva GL, Ferreira LLG, Andricopulo AD, Wilairatana P, De Moraes J. Susceptibility of Angiostrongylus cantonensis Larvae to Anthelmintic Drugs. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:901459. [PMID: 35800438 PMCID: PMC9255552 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.901459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/31/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Human helminthiasis affects approximately one in five people in the world and disproportionally affects the poorest and most deprived communities. Human angiostrongyliasis, caused by nematode Angiostrongylus cantonensis, is a neglected emerging disease with escalating importance worldwide. Chemotherapy is the main control method for helminthiasis, but the therapeutic arsenal is limited. This study aimed to evaluate the antiparasitic and molecular properties of the major available anthelmintic drugs against A. cantonensis in vitro. The first-stage larvae (L1), isolated from feces of an A. cantonensis-infected rat, were exposed to a set of 12 anthelmintic drugs in vitro. The larvae were monitored, and the concentration- and time-dependent viability alterations were determined. From 12 anthelmintic drugs, six (ivermectin, salamectin, moxidectin, pyrantel pamoate, albendazole and levamisole) were identified to affect the viability of A. cantonensis. The macrocyclic lactones (ivermectin, salamectin, moxidectin) and the imidazothiazole levamisole, were the most effective drugs, with IC50 ranging from 2.2 to 2.9 µM and a rapid onset of action. Albendazole, the most widely used anthelmintic in humans, had a slower onset of action, but an IC50 of 11.3 µM was achieved within 24 h. Molecular properties studies suggest that a less lipophilic character and low molecular weight could be favorable for the biological activity of the non-macrocyclic molecules. Collectively, our study revealed that macrocyclic lactones, levamisole, pyrantel pamoate, and albendazole are important anthelmintic agents against A. cantonensis. The results of this in vitro study also suggest that A. cantonensis L1 may be a particularly sensitive and useful model for anthelmintic studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel B. Roquini
- Center for Neglected Diseases Research, Guarulhos University, Guarulhos, Brazil
| | - Gabriel L. Silva
- Center for Neglected Diseases Research, Guarulhos University, Guarulhos, Brazil
| | - Leonardo L. G. Ferreira
- Laboratory of Medicinal and Computational Chemistry, Center for Research and Innovation in Biodiversity and Drug Discovery, Physics Institute of Sao Carlos, University of São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Adriano D. Andricopulo
- Laboratory of Medicinal and Computational Chemistry, Center for Research and Innovation in Biodiversity and Drug Discovery, Physics Institute of Sao Carlos, University of São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Polrat Wilairatana
- Department of Clinical Tropical Medicine, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
- *Correspondence: Polrat Wilairatana, ; Josué De Moraes,
| | - Josué De Moraes
- Center for Neglected Diseases Research, Guarulhos University, Guarulhos, Brazil
- *Correspondence: Polrat Wilairatana, ; Josué De Moraes,
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25
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Laing R, Doyle SR, McIntyre J, Maitland K, Morrison A, Bartley DJ, Kaplan R, Chaudhry U, Sargison N, Tait A, Cotton JA, Britton C, Devaney E. Transcriptomic analyses implicate neuronal plasticity and chloride homeostasis in ivermectin resistance and response to treatment in a parasitic nematode. PLoS Pathog 2022; 18:e1010545. [PMID: 35696434 PMCID: PMC9232149 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Revised: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 04/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The antiparasitic drug ivermectin plays an essential role in human and animal health globally. However, ivermectin resistance is widespread in veterinary helminths and there are growing concerns of sub-optimal responses to treatment in related helminths of humans. Despite decades of research, the genetic mechanisms underlying ivermectin resistance are poorly understood in parasitic helminths. This reflects significant uncertainty regarding the mode of action of ivermectin in parasitic helminths, and the genetic complexity of these organisms; parasitic helminths have large, rapidly evolving genomes and differences in evolutionary history and genetic background can confound comparisons between resistant and susceptible populations. We undertook a controlled genetic cross of a multi-drug resistant and a susceptible reference isolate of Haemonchus contortus, an economically important gastrointestinal nematode of sheep, and ivermectin-selected the F2 population for comparison with an untreated F2 control. RNA-seq analyses of male and female adults of all populations identified high transcriptomic differentiation between parental isolates, which was significantly reduced in the F2, allowing differences associated specifically with ivermectin resistance to be identified. In all resistant populations, there was constitutive upregulation of a single gene, HCON_00155390:cky-1, a putative pharyngeal-expressed transcription factor, in a narrow locus on chromosome V previously shown to be under ivermectin selection. In addition, we detected sex-specific differences in gene expression between resistant and susceptible populations, including constitutive upregulation of a P-glycoprotein, HCON_00162780:pgp-11, in resistant males only. After ivermectin selection, we identified differential expression of genes with roles in neuronal function and chloride homeostasis, which is consistent with an adaptive response to ivermectin-induced hyperpolarisation of neuromuscular cells. Overall, we show the utility of a genetic cross to identify differences in gene expression that are specific to ivermectin selection and provide a framework to better understand ivermectin resistance and response to treatment in parasitic helminths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roz Laing
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | | | - Jennifer McIntyre
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Kirsty Maitland
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Ray Kaplan
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Umer Chaudhry
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Neil Sargison
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Andy Tait
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | | | - Collette Britton
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Eileen Devaney
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
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26
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Zárate-Potes A, Ali I, Ribeiro Camacho M, Brownless H, Benedetto A. Meta-Analysis of Caenorhabditis elegans Transcriptomics Implicates Hedgehog-Like Signaling in Host-Microbe Interactions. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:853629. [PMID: 35620104 PMCID: PMC9127769 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.853629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Controlling nematode-caused diseases that affect cattle and crops world-wide remains a critical economic issue, owing to the lack of effective sustainable interventions. The interdependence of roundworms and their environmental microbes, including their microbiota, offers an opportunity for developing more targeted anthelminthic strategies. However, paucity of information and a currently narrow understanding of nematode-microbe interactions limited to specific infection contexts has precluded us from exploiting it. With the advent of omics approaches to map host-microbe genetic interactions, particularly in the model roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans, large datasets are now available across multiple models, that enable identification of nematode-microbe-specific pathways. In this work we collected 20 transcriptomic datasets documenting gene expression changes of C. elegans exposed to 20 different commensal and pathogenic microbes, performing gene enrichment analyses followed by functional testing using RNA interference directed toward genes of interest, before contrasting results from transcriptomic meta-analyses and phenomics. Differential expression analyses revealed a broad enrichment in signaling, innate immune response and (lipid) metabolism genes. Amongst signaling gene families, the nematode-divergent and expanded Hedgehog-like signaling (HHLS) pathway featured prominently. Indeed, 24/60 C. elegans Hedgehog-like proteins (HRPs) and 15/27 Patched-related receptors (PTRs) were differentially expressed in at least four microbial contexts, while up to 32/60 HRPs could be differentially expressed in a single context. interestingly, differentially expressed genes followed a microbe-specific pattern, suggestive of an adaptive microbe-specific response. To investigate this further, we knocked-down 96 individual HHLS genes by RNAi, using high-throughput assays to assess their impact on three worm-gut infection models (Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and Enterococcus faecalis) and two worm-commensal paradigms (Comamonas sp., and Bacillus subtilis). We notably identified new putative infection response genes whose upregulation was required for normal pathogen resistance (i.e., grl-21 and ptr-18 protective against E. faecalis), as well as commensal-specific host-gene expression changes that are required for normal host stress handling. Importantly, interactions appeared more microbe-specific than shared. Our results thus implicate the Hedgehog-like signaling pathway in the modulation and possibly fine-tuning of nematode-microbe interactions and support the idea that interventions targeting this pathway may provide a new avenue for anthelmintic development.
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27
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Dube M, Llanes D, Saoud M, Rennert R, Imming P, Häberli C, Keiser J, Arnold N. Albatrellus confluens (Alb. & Schwein.) Kotl. & Pouz.: Natural Fungal Compounds and Synthetic Derivatives with In Vitro Anthelmintic Activities and Antiproliferative Effects against Two Human Cancer Cell Lines. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 27:molecules27092950. [PMID: 35566312 PMCID: PMC9100200 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27092950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Neglected tropical diseases affect the world's poorest populations with soil-transmitted helminthiasis and schistosomiasis being among the most prevalent ones. Mass drug administration is currently the most important control measure, but the use of the few available drugs is giving rise to increased resistance of the parasites to the drugs. Different approaches are needed to come up with new therapeutic agents against these helminths. Fungi are a source of secondary metabolites, but most fungi remain largely uninvestigated as anthelmintics. In this report, the anthelmintic activity of Albatrellus confluens against Caenorhabditis elegans was investigated using bio-assay guided isolation. Grifolin (1) and neogrifolin (2) were identified as responsible for the anthelmintic activity. Derivatives 4-6 were synthesized to investigate the effect of varying the prenyl chain length on anthelmintic activity. The isolated compounds 1 and 2 and synthetic derivatives 4-6, as well as their educts 7-10, were tested against Schistosoma mansoni (adult and newly transformed schistosomula), Strongyloides ratti, Heligmosomoides polygyrus, Necator americanus, and Ancylostoma ceylanicum. Prenyl-2-orcinol (4) and geranylgeranyl-2-orcinol (6) showed promising activity against newly transformed schistosomula. The compounds 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6 were also screened for antiproliferative or cytotoxic activity against two human cancer lines, viz. prostate adenocarcinoma cells (PC-3) and colorectal adenocarcinoma cells (HT-29). Compound 6 was determined to be the most effective against both cell lines with IC50 values of 16.1 µM in PC-3 prostate cells and 33.7 µM in HT-29 colorectal cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mthandazo Dube
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Weinberg 3, D-06120 Halle (Saale), Germany; (M.D.); (D.L.); (M.S.); (R.R.)
| | - Dayma Llanes
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Weinberg 3, D-06120 Halle (Saale), Germany; (M.D.); (D.L.); (M.S.); (R.R.)
| | - Mohamad Saoud
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Weinberg 3, D-06120 Halle (Saale), Germany; (M.D.); (D.L.); (M.S.); (R.R.)
| | - Robert Rennert
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Weinberg 3, D-06120 Halle (Saale), Germany; (M.D.); (D.L.); (M.S.); (R.R.)
| | - Peter Imming
- Institute of Pharmacy, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, D-06120 Halle (Saale), Germany;
| | - Cécile Häberli
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Kreuzstrasse 2, CH-4123 Allschwil, Switzerland; (C.H.); (J.K.)
- University of Basel, CH-4051 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jennifer Keiser
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Kreuzstrasse 2, CH-4123 Allschwil, Switzerland; (C.H.); (J.K.)
- University of Basel, CH-4051 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Norbert Arnold
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Weinberg 3, D-06120 Halle (Saale), Germany; (M.D.); (D.L.); (M.S.); (R.R.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-345-5582-1310
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28
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Le Clec'h W, Chevalier FD, Mattos ACA, Strickland A, Diaz R, McDew-White M, Rohr CM, Kinung'hi S, Allan F, Webster BL, Webster JP, Emery AM, Rollinson D, Djirmay AG, Al Mashikhi KM, Al Yafae S, Idris MA, Moné H, Mouahid G, LoVerde P, Marchant JS, Anderson TJC. Genetic analysis of praziquantel response in schistosome parasites implicates a transient receptor potential channel. Sci Transl Med 2021; 13:eabj9114. [PMID: 34936381 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.abj9114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
[Figure: see text].
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Affiliation(s)
- Winka Le Clec'h
- Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX 78227, USA
| | | | - Ana Carolina A Mattos
- University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
| | | | - Robbie Diaz
- Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX 78227, USA
| | | | - Claudia M Rohr
- Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
| | - Safari Kinung'hi
- National Institute for Medical Research, Mwanza, United Republic of Tanzania
| | - Fiona Allan
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research (LCNDTR), Imperial College, London, UK.,Wolfson Wellcome Biomedical Laboratories, Natural History Museum, London, UK
| | - Bonnie L Webster
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research (LCNDTR), Imperial College, London, UK.,Wolfson Wellcome Biomedical Laboratories, Natural History Museum, London, UK
| | - Joanne P Webster
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research (LCNDTR), Imperial College, London, UK.,Centre for Emerging, Endemic and Exotic Diseases (CEEED), Royal Veterinary College, University of London, London, UK
| | - Aidan M Emery
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research (LCNDTR), Imperial College, London, UK.,Wolfson Wellcome Biomedical Laboratories, Natural History Museum, London, UK
| | - David Rollinson
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research (LCNDTR), Imperial College, London, UK.,Wolfson Wellcome Biomedical Laboratories, Natural History Museum, London, UK
| | - Amadou Garba Djirmay
- Réseau International Schistosomiases Environnemental Aménagement et Lutte (RISEAL), Niamey, Niger.,World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Khalid M Al Mashikhi
- Directorate General of Health Services, Dhofar Governorate, Salalah, Sultanate of Oman
| | - Salem Al Yafae
- Directorate General of Health Services, Dhofar Governorate, Salalah, Sultanate of Oman
| | | | - Hélène Moné
- Host-Pathogen-Environment Interactions Laboratory, University of Perpignan, Perpignan, France
| | - Gabriel Mouahid
- Host-Pathogen-Environment Interactions Laboratory, University of Perpignan, Perpignan, France
| | - Philip LoVerde
- University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
| | - Jonathan S Marchant
- Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
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29
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Newly identified parasitic nematode beta-tubulin alleles confer resistance to benzimidazoles. Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist 2021; 17:168-175. [PMID: 34637983 PMCID: PMC8503852 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2021.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2021] [Revised: 09/06/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Infections by parasitic nematodes cause large health and economic burdens worldwide. We use anthelmintic drugs to reduce these infections. However, resistance to anthelmintic drugs is extremely common and increasing worldwide. It is essential to understand the mechanisms of resistance to slow its spread. Recently, four new parasitic nematode beta-tubulin alleles have been identified in benzimidazole (BZ) resistant parasite populations: E198I, E198K, E198T, and E198stop. These alleles have not been tested for the ability to confer resistance or for any effects that they might have on organismal fitness. We introduced these four new alleles into the sensitive C. elegans laboratory-adapted N2 strain and exposed these genome-edited strains to both albendazole and fenbendazole. We found that all four alleles conferred resistance to both BZ drugs. Additionally, we tested for fitness consequences in both control and albendazole conditions over seven generations in competitive fitness assays. We found that none of the edited alleles had deleterious effects on fitness in control conditions and that all four alleles conferred strong and equivalent fitness benefits in BZ drug conditions. Because it is unknown if previously validated alleles confer a dominant or recessive BZ resistance phenotype, we tested the phenotypes caused by five of these alleles and found that none of them conferred a dominant BZ resistance phenotype. Accurate measurements of resistance, fitness effects, and dominance caused by the resistance alleles allow for the generation of better models of population dynamics and facilitate control practices that maximize the efficacy of this critical anthelmintic drug class. Four newly identified parasitic nematode beta-tubulin alleles confer benzimidazole resistance. The four newly identified alleles do not confer deleterious fitness consequences. Five beta-tubulin alleles confer recessive benzimidazole resistance.
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30
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High-content approaches to anthelmintic drug screening. Trends Parasitol 2021; 37:780-789. [PMID: 34092518 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2021.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Revised: 05/03/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Most anthelmintics were discovered through in vivo screens using animal models of infection. Developing in vitro assays for parasitic worms presents several challenges. The lack of in vitro life cycle culture protocols requires harvesting worms from vertebrate hosts or vectors, limiting assay throughput. Once worms are removed from the host environment, established anthelmintics often show no obvious phenotype - raising concerns about the predictive value of many in vitro assays. However, with recent progress in understanding how anthelmintics subvert host-parasite interactions, and breakthroughs in high-content imaging and machine learning, in vitro assays have the potential to discern subtle cryptic parasite phenotypes. These may prove better endpoints than conventional in vitro viability assays.
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31
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Wang J. Genomics of the Parasitic Nematode Ascaris and Its Relatives. Genes (Basel) 2021; 12:493. [PMID: 33800545 PMCID: PMC8065839 DOI: 10.3390/genes12040493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Revised: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Nematodes of the genus Ascaris are important parasites of humans and swine, and the phylogenetically related genera (Parascaris, Toxocara, and Baylisascaris) infect mammals of veterinary interest. Over the last decade, considerable genomic resources have been established for Ascaris, including complete germline and somatic genomes, comprehensive mRNA and small RNA transcriptomes, as well as genome-wide histone and chromatin data. These datasets provide a major resource for studies on the basic biology of these parasites and the host-parasite relationship. Ascaris and its relatives undergo programmed DNA elimination, a highly regulated process where chromosomes are fragmented and portions of the genome are lost in embryonic cells destined to adopt a somatic fate, whereas the genome remains intact in germ cells. Unlike many model organisms, Ascaris transcription drives early development beginning prior to pronuclear fusion. Studies on Ascaris demonstrated a complex small RNA network even in the absence of a piRNA pathway. Comparative genomics of these ascarids has provided perspectives on nematode sex chromosome evolution, programmed DNA elimination, and host-parasite coevolution. The genomic resources enable comparison of proteins across diverse species, revealing many new potential drug targets that could be used to control these parasitic nematodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianbin Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA;
- UT-Oak Ridge National Laboratory Graduate School of Genome Science and Technology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
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32
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Evans KS, Wit J, Stevens L, Hahnel SR, Rodriguez B, Park G, Zamanian M, Brady SC, Chao E, Introcaso K, Tanny RE, Andersen EC. Two novel loci underlie natural differences in Caenorhabditis elegans abamectin responses. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009297. [PMID: 33720993 PMCID: PMC7993787 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Revised: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Parasitic nematodes cause a massive worldwide burden on human health along with a loss of livestock and agriculture productivity. Anthelmintics have been widely successful in treating parasitic nematodes. However, resistance is increasing, and little is known about the molecular and genetic causes of resistance for most of these drugs. The free-living roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans provides a tractable model to identify genes that underlie resistance. Unlike parasitic nematodes, C. elegans is easy to maintain in the laboratory, has a complete and well annotated genome, and has many genetic tools. Using a combination of wild isolates and a panel of recombinant inbred lines constructed from crosses of two genetically and phenotypically divergent strains, we identified three genomic regions on chromosome V that underlie natural differences in response to the macrocyclic lactone (ML) abamectin. One locus was identified previously and encodes an alpha subunit of a glutamate-gated chloride channel (glc-1). Here, we validate and narrow two novel loci using near-isogenic lines. Additionally, we generate a list of prioritized candidate genes identified in C. elegans and in the parasite Haemonchus contortus by comparison of ML resistance loci. These genes could represent previously unidentified resistance genes shared across nematode species and should be evaluated in the future. Our work highlights the advantages of using C. elegans as a model to better understand ML resistance in parasitic nematodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn S. Evans
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
- Interdisciplinary Biological Sciences Program, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Janneke Wit
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Lewis Stevens
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Steffen R. Hahnel
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Briana Rodriguez
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Grace Park
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Mostafa Zamanian
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Shannon C. Brady
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
- Interdisciplinary Biological Sciences Program, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Ellen Chao
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Katherine Introcaso
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Robyn E. Tanny
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Erik C. Andersen
- Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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