Experience of external beam radiotherapy given adjuvantly or at relapse following surgery for craniopharyngioma

Visual outcomes after treatment of craniopharyngioma in children: A systematic review

OBJECTIVE

Craniopharyngiomas (CP) are rare brain tumors that often result in visual impairment due to their proximity to the optic pathway. The optimal management approach to preserve visual function in these patients remains controversial. We sought to investigate visual outcomes of children with craniopharyngiomas based on treatment modality.

METHODS

A systematic review was performed according to PRISMA guidelines. PubMed, Embase, and Scopus databases were searched in December 2022 for relevant articles. Articles were screened by title/abstract for relevance, then by full-text. Relevant demographic, intervention, and outcome data were extracted from included studies.

RESULTS

A total of 59 studies were included, representing 2655 patients. The overall visual status (OVS) of patients receiving surgery alone was improved in 27.6% of reported outcomes, unchanged in 50.3%, and deteriorated in 22.1%. The OVS for patients receiving radiation alone was improved in 21.1%, unchanged in 42.1%, and deteriorated in 36.8%. Patients receiving surgery plus adjuvant radiotherapy had OVS improvement in 27.4%, unchanged in 63.2%, and deteriorated in 9.4%. Of those receiving intracystic bleomycin, 23.1% had improvement in OVS, 46.2% remained unchanged, and 30.8% deteriorated. Of patients receiving interferon-α, 34.8% improved, 54.5% remained unchanged, and 10.6% deteriorated.

CONCLUSION

OVS most frequently remained unchanged regardless of intervention. The greatest improvement in OVS was seen in those receiving interferon-α or surgery alone. The greatest OVS deterioration was noted with radiation alone. Future standardized, randomized, large-scale studies with focused assessment of ophthalmologic findings are key to further understanding the impact different interventions have on visual outcomes in these children.

Outcome after proton beam therapy versus photon-based radiation therapy in childhood-onset craniopharyngioma patients-results of KRANIOPHARYNGEOM 2007

Background

Proton beam therapy (PBT) is being increas16ingly used to treat residual craniopharyngioma (CP) after hypothalamus-sparing surgery. Compared to photon-based radiation therapy (XRT) with PBT, less irradiation in the penumbra reduces the scattered dose to critical organs neighboring but outside the area of treatment, minimizing the risk of sequelae.

Patients and methods

Between 2007 and 2019, 99 of 290 (34%) childhood-onset CP patients recruited in KRANIOPHARYNGEOM 2007 received external radiation therapy (RT) (65% PBT, 35% XRT). Outcome was analyzed in terms of survival, endocrinological and anthropometric parameters (BMI and height SDS), quality of life (QoL using PEDQOL), and functional capacity (FMH) with special regard to irradiation technique.

Results

PBT became predominant (used in 43% and 72% of all irradiated patients registered within the first and second halves of the recruitment period, between 2008 and 2013 and 2013 and 2018, respectively). Five-year event-free survival rates after PBT or XRT were comparable (92% ± 4% vs. 91% ± 4%, p = 0.42) and higher than for the whole cohort since diagnosis, including non-RT patients (37% ± 4%). Radiation doses to the hypothalamus and pituitary did not differ between PBT and XRT. Endocrine deficits due to disturbances of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis (HPA) were already common before irradiation. During the first 5 years after CP diagnosis/RT, no differences between PBT, XRT, and non-RT CP patients concerning functional capacity and anthropometric parameters have been obtained. Only for the PEDQOL domain "physical function", parental-assessed QoL was lower 12 months after PBT versus XRT or non-RT patients.

Conclusion

QoL, functional capacity, degree of obesity, and endocrinopathy varied over time from diagnosis, but by 5 years, there was no significant difference between PBT and XRT upfront or delayed, nor was there any compromise in historic survival rates, which remained high >90%. RT of any type is extremely effective at stabilizing disease after hypothalamic-sparing surgery. The purported specific benefits of PBT-reducing sequelae are not proven in this study where the organ of critical interest is itself diseased, increasing an urgent need to better address and treat the tumor-induced endocrine harm from diagnosis in dedicated pituitary services. Other hypothesized benefits of PBT versus XRT on vascular events and secondary cancers await longer comparison.

Clinical trial registration number

https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/, identifier NCT01272622.

Approach to the Patient With Hypothalamic Obesity

Hypothalamic obesity (HO) is defined as abnormal weight gain due to physical destruction of the hypothalamus. Suprasellar tumors, most commonly craniopharyngiomas, are a classic cause of HO. HO often goes unnoticed initially as patients, families, and medical teams are focused on oncologic treatments and management of panhypopituitarism. HO is characterized by rapid weight gain in the first year after hypothalamic destruction followed by refractory obesity due to an energy imbalance of decreased energy expenditure without decreased food intake. Currently available pharmacotherapies are less effective in HO than in common obesity. While not a cure, dietary interventions, pharmacotherapy, and bariatric surgery can mitigate the effects of HO. Early recognition of HO is necessary to give an opportunity to intervene before substantial weight gain occurs. Our goal for this article is to review the pathophysiology of HO and to discuss available treatment options and future directions for prevention and treatment.

Outcome after pediatric craniopharyngioma: the role of age at diagnosis and hypothalamic damage

OBJECTIVE

Craniopharyngiomas (CP) are rare malformational tumors. Clinical presentation and outcome of pediatric patients with CP with specific regard to age at diagnosis is not clear. The aim of this cohort study was to determine clinical presentation and outcome in these patients diagnosed at different ages at diagnosis.

DESIGN

Seven hundred and nine patients diagnosed with CP were recruited from 1999 to 2021 in HIT-Endo and KRANIOPHARYNGEOM 2000/2007/Registry 2019 and prospectively observed.

METHODS

Age at diagnosis was categorized as infants and toddlers (<2 years), early childhood (2-6 years), middle childhood (6-12 years), and early adolescence (12-18 years). Overall and event-free survival (EFS), functional capacity (FMH), and quality of life (QoL) (PEDQOL) were assessed.

RESULTS

Severe obesity (body mass index [BMI] >3 standard deviation score [SDS]) was prevalent in 45.4% at last visit. A lower EFS but better QoL was observed in children with age at diagnosis <6 years compared with ≥6 years. Reduced functional capacity percentiles were associated with increased BMI-SDS at last visit (rho = -0.125, 95% confidence interval [CI; -0.21; -0.04]) and age at diagnosis <2 years. Posterior hypothalamic involvement and hypothalamic lesion (HL) were independent risk factors for reduced EFS (hazard ratio = 1.59, 95% CI [1.12-2.26]) and obesity at last visit (odds ratio = 2.94, 95% CI [1.73-5.08]). Age at diagnosis did not contribute to severe obesity and reduced QoL.

CONCLUSIONS

Diagnosis of CP at age <6 years may help patients to adapt early to disabilities but may lead to a higher probability of CP relapse. Not age at diagnosis but posterior HL may be the contributing factor to severe obesity and a reduced QoL.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBERS

NCT00258453; NCT01272622; NCT04158284.

Craniopharyngioma in Pediatrics and Adults

Craniopharyngiomas are rare malignancies of dysembryogenic origin, involving the sellar and parasellar areas. These low-grade, epithelial tumors account for two main histological patterns (adamantinomatous craniopharyngioma and papillary craniopharyngioma), which differ in epidemiology, pathogenesis, and histomorphological appearance. Adamantinomatous craniopharyngiomas typically show a bimodal age distribution (5-15 years and 45-60 years), while papillary craniopharyngiomas are limited to adult patients, especially in the fifth and sixth decades of life. Recently, craniopharyngioma histological subtypes have been demonstrated to harbor distinct biomolecular signatures. Somatic mutations in CTNNB1 gene encoding β-catenin have been exclusively detected in adamantinomatous craniopharyngiomas, which predominantly manifest as cystic lesions, while papillary craniopharyngiomas are driven by BRAF V600E mutations in up to 95% of cases and are typically solid masses. Despite the benign histological nature (grade I according to the World Health Organization classification), craniopharyngiomas may heavily affect long-term survival and quality of life, due to their growth pattern in a critical region for the presence of eloquent neurovascular structures and possible neurological sequelae following their treatment. Clinical manifestations are mostly related to the involvement of hypothalamic-pituitary axis, optic pathways, ventricular system, and major blood vessels of the circle of Willis. Symptoms and signs referable to intracranial hypertension, visual disturbance, and endocrine deficiencies should promptly raise the clinical suspicion for sellar and suprasellar pathologies, advocating further neuroimaging investigations, especially brain MRI. The optimal therapeutic management of craniopharyngiomas is still a matter of debate. Over the last decades, the surgical strategy for craniopharyngiomas, especially in younger patients, has shifted from the aggressive attempt of radical resection to a more conservative and individualized approach via a planned subtotal resection followed by adjuvant radiotherapy, aimed at preserving functional outcomes and minimizing surgery-related morbidity. Whenever gross total removal is not safely feasible, adjuvant radiotherapy (RT) and stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) have gained an increasingly important role to manage tumor residual or recurrence. The role of intracavitary therapies, including antineoplastic drugs or sealed radioactive sources, is predominantly limited to monocystic craniopharyngiomas as secondary therapeutic option. Novel findings in genetic profiling of craniopharyngiomas have unfold new scenarios in the development of targeted therapies based on brand-new biomolecular markers, advancing the hypothesis of introducing neoadjuvant chemotherapy regimens in order to reduce tumor burden prior to resection. Indeed, the rarity of these neoplasms requires a multispecialty approach involving an expert team of endocrinologists, neurosurgeons, neuro-ophthalmologists, neuroradiologists, radiotherapists, and neuro-oncologists, in order to pursue a significant impact on postoperative outcomes and long-term prognosis.

Upfront adjuvant irradiation versus postoperative surveillance following incomplete surgical resection of craniopharyngiomas in children and young adults

OBJECTIVE

Incomplete surgical removal of craniopharyngiomas frequently results in suboptimal oncological control. Radiation therapy is usually offered in these cases to prevent local recurrence of disease; however, the efficacy of radiation is limited by its potential adverse effect, particularly in younger patients. This study was undertaken to compare long-term outcomes and rates of postoperative obesity and endocrinopathy in patients undergoing either upfront adjuvant radiation after surgery, or postoperative surveillance with progression-contingent intervention.

METHODS

Thirty-seven patients aged <25 years who had undergone primary incomplete surgical resection of craniopharyngiomas were retrospectively identified and categorized according to the prescribed treatment strategy. Recurrence rates, functional status, neuro-ophthalmologic, and endocrine outcomes were studied in both groups of patients.

RESULTS

Twenty-three patients received upfront adjuvant radiation, and 14 patients underwent postoperative surveillance. Adjuvant radiation in the former group was delivered using either conventional (n=10), 3D-conformal (n=4), or fractionated stereotactic (n=9) techniques using a linear accelerator. The mean follow-up duration was 64.7 months (range 14-134 months). Disease progression was significantly higher in patients undergoing surveillance as compared to those undergoing upfront adjuvant radiation (71.4 versus 17.4%; p=0.002). Median progression-free survival times were 129 months and 27 months in the upfront adjuvant radiation and surveillance groups, respectively (p=0.007). In patients undergoing surveillance, 50% ultimately required irradiation, and the median radiation-free survival time in this subgroup was 57 months. Two children in the adjuvant radiation group developed asymptomatic radiation-related vasculopathies on follow-up; however, there were no statistically significant differences between the two groups in terms of visual, functional, or pituitary-hypothalamic function at last follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

In comparison to upfront adjuvant radiation following incomplete craniopharyngioma resection significantly, a strategy of postoperative surveillance resulted in less durable disease control but allowed radiation therapy to be delayed by a median time of 57 months, without significant detriment to global functional, visual, and neuro-endocrinological outcomes. The merits and demerits of either strategy should be carefully considered in the post-surgical management of these patients.

Is Postoperative Radiotherapy Needed in the Management of Adult Craniopharyngiomas?

BACKGROUND

The optimal treatment of adult craniopharyngioma (CP) remains controversial. Although benign, these tumors tend to recur locally. The choice between gross total resection (GTR) versus subtotal resection (STR) with adjuvant or delayed radiotherapy (RT) is debated. The objective of this study is to review our experience with adult CPs over a 20-year period and identify an optimal management strategy.

METHODS

From 1999 to 2020, we reviewed all patients diagnosed with CP at our institution. We collected data regarding tumor characteristics, treatments, and toxicity. Disease progression was defined as growth on imaging. Descriptive statistics were used to assess patient characteristics. The Kaplan Meier method was used to assess progression-free survival (PFS) and corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CI) from the time since treatment initiation.

RESULTS

Twenty-four patients with a median age of 50 were included in this study. The median follow-up was 85 months. Seven patients had initial GTR, 10 STR, and 7 STR + RT. The overall 5-year PFS was 56% (95% CI: 38-83%): 100% in the STR + RT group, 69% in the GTR group, and 18% in the STR group (p = 0.01). Of the 17 patients initially treated with surgery alone, 3 with GTR and 6 with STR required salvage RT at a median of 46 months, with no further progression after salvage RT.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study underscores the importance of RT for local control and suggests that STR + RT should be considered a viable option in the management of these tumors as it may be associated with improved PFS compared to surgery alone.

Current Advances in the Management of Adult Craniopharyngiomas

Craniopharyngiomas (CPs) are slow growing, histologically benign intracranial tumors located in the sellar–suprasellar region. Although known to have low mortality, their location and relationship to the adjacent neural structures results in patients having significant neurologic, endocrine, and visual comorbidities. The invasive nature of this tumor makes complete resection a challenge and contributes to its recurrence. Additionally, these tumors are bimodally distributed, being treated with surgery, and are followed by other adjuncts, such as focused radiation therapy, e.g., Gamma knife. Advances in surgical techniques, imaging tools, and instrumentations have resulted in the evolution of surgery using endoscopic techniques, with residual components being treated by radiotherapy to target the residual tumor. Advances in molecular biology have elucidated the main pathways involved in tumor development and recurrence, but presently, no other treatments are offered to patients, besides surgery, radiation, and endocrine management, as the disease and tumor evolve. We review the contemporary management of these tumors, from the evolution of surgical treatments, utilizing standard open microscopic approaches to the more recent endoscopic surgery, and discuss the current recommendations for care of these patients. We discuss the developments in radiation therapy, such as radiosurgery, being used as treatment strategies for craniopharyngioma, highlighting their beneficial effects on tumor resections while decreasing the rates of adverse outcomes. We also outline the recent chemotherapy modalities, which help control tumor growth, and the immune landscape on craniopharyngiomas that allow the development of novel immunotherapies.

Craniopharyngiomas: Surgery and Radiotherapy

Taking into account the benign nature of craniopharyngiomas, the main method of treatment is the resection of the tumor. However, the tendency of these tumors to invade critical structures (such as optic pathways, the hypothalamic-pituitary system, the Willis circle vessels) often limits the possibility of a radical surgery.Craniopharyngiomas of the third ventricle represent the greatest challenge for surgery. After radical surgery, hypothalamic disorders often occur, including not only obesity but also cognitive, emotional, mental, and metabolic disturbances. Metabolic disorders associated with damage to the hypothalamus progress after surgery and lead to impaired functions of the internal organs. This process is irreversible and, in many cases, becomes the direct cause of mortality. The life expectancy of patients with the surgically affected hypothalamus is significantly shorter than in patients with preserved diencephalic function. The incidence of hypothalamic disorders after surgery can reach 40%.Even with macroscopically total resection, craniopharyngiomas can recur in 10-30% of cases, and in the presence of tumor remnants and with no further radiation treatment, the risk of recurrence significantly increases to up to 50-85% according to various studies. For this reason, the observation of patients with residual tumors after surgery is an incorrect strategy.Radiation therapy significantly improves progression-free survival (PFS), and the use of stereotactic irradiation techniques ensures conformity of irradiation of tumor remnants with a complicated shape and location (Iwata H et al., J Neurooncol 106(3):571-577, 2012; Aggarwal et al., Pituitary 16(1):26-33, 2013; Savateev et al., Zh Vopr Neirokhir Im N N Burdenko 81(3):94-106; 2017), which potentially reduces the risk of undesirable postradiation effects. Therefore, the quality of life in patients with craniopharyngiomas infiltrating the hypothalamus is significantly higher after non-radical operations with subsequent stereotactic radiation than after a total or subtotal removal.

Childhood-onset Craniopharyngioma

Craniopharyngiomas are rare embryonic malformational tumors of the sellar/parasellar region, classified by the World Health Organization (WHO) as tumors with low-grade malignancy (WHO I). The childhood adamantinomatous subtype of craniopharyngioma is usually cystic with calcified areas. At the time of diagnosis, hypothalamic/pituitary deficits, visual disturbances, and increased intracranial pressure are major symptoms. The treatment of choice in case of favorable tumor location (without hypothalamic involvement) is complete resection. It is important to ensure that optical and hypothalamic functionality are preserved. In case of unfavorable tumor location, that is with hypothalamic involvement, a hypothalamus-sparing surgical strategy with subsequent local irradiation of residual tumor is recommended. In the further course of the disease, recurrences and progression often occur. Nevertheless, overall survival rates are high at 92%. Severe impairment of quality of life and comorbidities such as metabolic syndrome, hypothalamic obesity, and neurological consequences can be observed in patients with disease- and/or treatment-related lesions of hypothalamic structures. Childhood-onset craniopharyngioma frequently manifests as a chronic disease so that patients require lifelong, continuous care by experienced multidisciplinary teams to manage clinical and quality of life consequences. For this review, a search for original articles and reviews published between 1986 and 2020 was performed in Pubmed, Science Citation Index Expanded, EMBASE, and Scopus. The search terms used were "craniopharyngioma, hypothalamus, pituitary obesity, irradiation, neurosurgery.

Effective salvage of recurrent craniopharyngioma with fractionated stereotactic radiotherapy

Craniopharyngiomas can invade surrounding structures, including the optic chiasm and hypothalamus. In such cases, subtotal resection is often preferred to limit perioperative morbidity and mortality; however, subtotal resection is associated with high rates of recurrence. Recurrent craniopharyngioma is typically treated with another subtotal resection and adjuvant radiotherapy. We present a case of a patient found to have a large craniopharyngioma compressing the optic chiasm, hypothalamus and left cavernous sinus. She underwent surgical debulking but developed recurrence shortly thereafter. Subsequently, she underwent a second debulking surgery, followed by fractionated stereotactic radiotherapy (SRT). Results show that she exhibited an impressive response to SRT with further tumor shrinkage, while remaining clinically well. This case demonstrates the efficacy of SRT in salvage of recurrent craniopharyngioma.

Clinical outcomes following proton therapy for adult craniopharyngioma: a single-institution cohort study

BACKGROUND

Craniopharyngioma is a benign tumor that commonly develops within the suprasellar region. The tumor and treatment can have debilitating consequences for pediatric and adult patients, including vision loss and pituitary/hypothalamic dysfunction. Most craniopharyngioma series focus on treatment of the pediatric population. We evaluated the outcomes of all adult craniopharyngioma patients treated at our institution using proton therapy to report outcomes for disease control, treatment-related toxicity, and tumor response.

METHODS

We analyzed 14 adult patients (≥ 22 years old). All patients had gross disease at the time of radiotherapy. Five were treated for de novo disease and 9 for recurrent disease. Patients received double-scattered conformal proton therapy to a mean dose of 54 GyRBE in 1.8 GyRBE/fraction (range 52.2-54 GyRBE). Weekly magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) helped to evaluate tumor changes during radiotherapy.

RESULTS

With median clinical and radiographic follow-up of 29 and 26 months, respectively, the 3-year local control and overall survival rates were both 100%. There were no grade 3 or greater acute or late radiotherapy-related side effects. There was no radiotherapy-related vision loss or optic neuropathy. No patients required intervention or treatment replanning due to tumor changes during radiotherapy. Two patients experienced transient cyst expansion at their first post-radiotherapy MRI. Both patients were followed closely clinically and radiographically and had subsequent dramatic tumor/cyst regression, requiring no interventions.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data support the safety and efficacy of proton therapy in the treatment of adult craniopharyngioma as part of primary or salvage treatment. We recommend early consideration of radiotherapy. This trial was registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov as #NCT03224767.

Radiotherapy of Parasellar Tumours

Parasellar tumours represent a wide group of intracranial lesions, both benign and malignant. They may arise from several structures located within the parasellar area or they may infiltrate or metastasize this region. The treatment of the tumours located in these areas is challenging because of their complex anatomical location and their heterogenous histology. It often requires a multimodal approach, including surgery, radiation therapy (RT), and medical therapy. Due to the proximity of critical structures and the risks of side effects related to the procedure, a successful surgical resection is often not achievable. Thus, RT plays a crucial role in the treatment of several parasellar tumours. Conventional fractionated RT and modern radiation techniques, like stereotactic radiosurgery and proton beam RT, have become a standard management option, in particular for cases with residual or recurrent tumours after surgery and for those cases where surgery is contraindicated. This review examines the role of RT in parasellar tumours analysing several techniques, outcomes and side effects.

Diagnosis and Treatment of Parasellar Lesions

The parasellar region, located around the sella turcica, is an anatomically complex area representing a crossroads for important adjacent structures. Several lesions, including tumoral, inflammatory vascular, and infectious diseases may affect this area. Although invasive pituitary tumors are the most common neoplasms encountered within the parasellar region, other tumoral (and cystic) lesions can also be detected. Craniopharyngiomas, meningiomas, as well as Rathke's cleft cysts, chordomas, and ectopic pituitary tumors can primarily originate from the parasellar region. Except for hormone-producing ectopic pituitary tumors, signs and symptoms of these lesions are usually nonspecific, due to a mass effect on the surrounding anatomical structures (i.e., headache, visual defects), while a clinically relevant impairment of endocrine function (mainly anterior hypopituitarism and/or diabetes insipidus) can be present if the pituitary gland is displaced or compressed. Differential diagnosis of parasellar lesions mainly relies on magnetic resonance imaging, which should be interpreted by neuroradiologists skilled in base skull imaging. Neurosurgery is the main treatment, alone or in combination with radiotherapy. Of note, recent studies have identified gene mutations or signaling pathway modulators that represent potential candidates for the development of targeted therapies, particularly for craniopharyngiomas and meningiomas. In summary, parasellar lesions still represent a diagnostic and therapeutic challenge. A deeper knowledge of this complex anatomical site, the improvement of imaging tools, as well as novel insights into the pathophysiology of presenting lesions are strongly needed to improve the management of parasellar lesions.

Craniopharyngioma

Craniopharyngiomas are rare malformational tumours of low histological malignancy arising along the craniopharyngeal duct. The two histological subtypes, adamantinomatous craniopharyngioma (ACP) and papillary craniopharyngioma (PCP), differ in genesis and age distribution. ACPs are diagnosed with a bimodal peak of incidence (5-15 years and 45-60 years), whereas PCPs are restricted to adults mainly in the fifth and sixth decades of life. ACPs are driven by somatic mutations in CTNNB1 (encoding β-catenin) that affect β-catenin stability and are predominantly cystic in appearance. PCPs frequently harbour somatic BRAFV600E mutations and are typically solid tumours. Clinical manifestations due to increased intracranial pressure, visual impairment and endocrine deficiencies should prompt imaging investigations, preferentially MRI. Treatment comprises neurosurgery and radiotherapy; intracystic chemotherapy is used in monocystic ACP. Although long-term survival is high, quality of life and neuropsychological function are frequently impaired due to the close anatomical proximity to the optic chiasm, hypothalamus and pituitary gland. Indeed, hypothalamic involvement and treatment-related hypothalamic lesions frequently result in hypothalamic obesity, physical fatigue and psychosocial deficits. Given the rarity of these tumours, efforts to optimize infrastructure and international collaboration should be research priorities.

Excess mortality after craniopharyngioma treatment: are we making progress?

PURPOSE

Craniopharyngioma is associated with an increased risk of mortality even after surgical, radiotherapeutic and hormone supplementations. Previous studies using different designs showed a possible trend of decreasing mortality in recent years. This review summarises studies reporting standardised mortality ratio (SMR) after craniopharyngioma treatment, as well as the bias and confounding in these studies to plan further researches.

METHODS

PubMed and Embase was searched for manuscripts published before October 2018 using medical subject heading terms ("craniopharyngioma" or "hypopituitarism" and "mortality").

RESULTS

Eight studies reported SMR after craniopharyngioma treatment, with a total of 2802 patients. The subgroup meta-analysis using random effects model was conducted to pool the SMR, which was 6.2 (95% CI 4.1-9.4) before 2010 and 2.9 (95% CI 2.2-3.8) after 2010 (subgroup test p < 0.01), respectively. Misclassification (one study) and selection bias (six studies) either inflated or deflated the result. The trend of increasing survival rate over the time was observed in studies without reporting SMR. Female patients, childhood-onset disease, hydrocephalus, tumour recurrence, body mass index and panhypopituitarism were identified as the important risk factors for excess mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

Though bias and confounding existed across studies, the decreasing SMR and increasing survival rate over the time was in favour of a real signal. It is necessary to launch studies to further investigate the morality and risk factors after multidisciplinary treatment of craniopharyngioma in a hospital-based manner, using the modern statistical method to adjust for bias and confounding.

MANAGEMENT OF ENDOCRINE DISEASE: Childhood-onset craniopharyngioma: state of the art of care in 2018

This review presents an update on current concepts of pathogenesis, diagnostics, multidisciplinary treatment and follow-up care, with special focus on neuropsychological sequelae of childhood-onset craniopharyngioma (CP) based on most recent publications on these topics. Recent insight in molecular pathogenesis of CP opens new perspectives on targeted therapy. Further research to elucidate pathogenic mechanisms and to prevent hypothalamic involvement of CP is warranted. Surgical treatment strategies should be based on a multidisciplinary approach involving experienced teams aiming at posterior hypothalamus-sparing treatment for prevention of quality of life impairments. Centralization of CP treatment in experienced 'centers of excellence' is recommended. However, such centralization includes high thresholds concerning infrastructure not achievable in all health systems. Alternatives such as multicenter-based networks used for reference assessments should be considered to assure high standards of treatment quality. Irradiation is efficient in preventing further growth or recurrence in CP patients with residual tumor. Proton beam therapy - available on a wider range in the near future - will help to avoid radiooncological side effects. Novel insights into neuropsychological sequelae after CP should be the basis for the development of future therapeutic neuropsychological interventions. Due to the rareness of the disease, common international efforts in research and treatment are recommended and should lead to an international registry for childhood-onset CP, as a first step toward efficient coordination of scientific and clinical initiatives.

Benefits of image-guided stereotactic hypofractionated radiation therapy as adjuvant treatment of craniopharyngiomas. A review

PURPOSE

Craniopharyngiomas account for 5.6-13% of intracranial tumors in children. Despite being histologically benign, these tumors remain a major neurosurgical challenge because of the typical tight adherence to adjacent critical structures. The optimal therapeutic approach for this disease is controversial. Large cystic size and adherence to neurovascular, neuroendocrine, and optic structures without a clear line of cleavage make complete resection problematic and often hazardous. For these reasons, partial resection and adjuvant treatment play an important role. Post-operative radiation therapy (RT) following either complete or incomplete tumor removal is associated with significantly decreased recurrence rates. The aim of this review is to analyze the potential advantage of the most modern technical advancements for RT of craniopharyngiomas.

METHODS

This narrative review on the topic of craniopharyngiomas was based on published data available on PUBMED/Medline. All data concerning adjuvant or upfront radiation therapy treatment of craniopharyngioma were reviewed and summarized. A more detailed analysis of fractionated frameless steretactic radiosurgery of these tumors is provided as well.

RESULTS

We reviewed the possible improvement provided by intensity modulated beams, arc therapy, image guidance, proton radiation, and fractionated stereotactic radiosurgery. Many published findings on outcome and toxicity after RT involve the use of relatively outdated RT techniques. Technologic improvements in imaging, radiation planning, and delivery have improved the distribution of radiation doses to desired target volumes and reduced the dose to nearby critical normal tissues. Currently available techniques, providing image guidance and improved radiation doses distribution profile, have shown to maintain the efficacy of conventional techniques while significantly reducing the toxicity.

CONCLUSIONS

Image-guided radiosurgery holds the dose distributions and precision of frame-based techniques with the remarkable advantage of multiple-session treatments that are better tolerated by sensitive peritumoral structures, such as the optic pathway and hypothalamus. This, together with the comfort of a frameless technique, candidates frameless image-guided radiosurgery to be the first option for the adjuvant post-operative treatment of craniopharyngiomas in children and young adults when total resection cannot be achieved, in particular those with hypothalamic involvement, and when the residual tumor is mostly solid.

Impact of neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio on long-term outcome in patients with craniopharyngioma

Neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) is a poor prognostic factor in many tumors including glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), colorectal, and prostate cancer. The aim of this study was to investigate the prognostic value of preoperative NLR in patients with craniopharyngioma.Around 149 patients of craniopharyngioma surgically were treated at the Department of Neurosurgery, West China Hospital from January 2008 to December 2010, including 84 males and 65 females aged from 6 to 70 years were retrospectively reviewed, and preoperative NLR was analyzed. Overall survival (OS), progression free survival (PFS), and quality of life (QOL) were evaluated.The 5-year OS and PFS rates were 81.21% and 75.84%. Preoperative NLR was significantly correlated with OS (HR = 1.44, 95% CI 1.16-1.79, P = .001) and PFS (HR = 1.46, 95% CI 1.22-1.74, P < .001). The best cut-off value of NLR was found to be 4 based on the receiver operator characteristics (ROC) curve. Patients with NLR ≥4 had a significantly worse QOL (P = .039), lower OS rate (P = .009), and PFS rate (P < .001).Preoperative NLR may be a simple, readily available, and valid predictor of long-term outcome in craniopharyngioma. We suggest that the NLR can provide effective guidance to neurosurgeons for more information about the tumor and prognostic evaluation.

Proton Therapy for Craniopharyngioma - An Early Report from a Single European Centre

AIMS

Proton beam therapy (PBT) is being increasingly used for craniopharyngioma. We describe our early outcome of patients treated with PBT.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Between August 2013 and July 2016, 18 patients with craniopharyngiomas were treated with 54 Cobalt Gray Equivalent (CGE) in 30 fractions over 6 weeks at our centre. The early outcome of 16 patients included in a registry study was analysed. Radiological response was assessed by RECIST criteria and the disease- and treatment-related toxicities were scored according to the CTCAE 4.0.

RESULTS

All patients are alive at a median follow-up of 32.6 months (range 9.2-70.6 months) from initial diagnosis. The median age at PBT was 10.2 years (range 5.4-46.9 years). One patient progressed 8.7 months after PBT and subsequently had complete resection of the tumour. At a median follow-up of 18.4 months after PBT, five patients remained in complete remission, four in partial remission and seven with stable disease. The most common adverse effects during PBT were grade 1 (cutaneous in seven patients and fatigue in six patients). There were no treatment-related grade 3 toxicities.

CONCLUSIONS

Our early results are encouraging and comparable with the limited literature on PBT for craniopharyngioma.

Pediatric Craniopharyngiomas: A Primer for the Skull Base Surgeon

Pediatric craniopharyngioma is a rare sellar-region epithelial tumor that, in spite of its typically benign pathology, has the potential to be clinically devastating, and presents a host of formidable management challenges for the skull base surgeon. Strategies in craniopharyngioma care have been the cause of considerable controversy, with respect to both philosophical and technical issues. Key questions remain unresolved, and include optimizing extent-of-resection goals; the ideal radiation modality and its role as an alternative, adjuvant, or salvage treatment; appropriate indications for expanded endoscopic endonasal surgery as an alternative to transcranial microsurgery; risks and benefits of skull base techniques in a pediatric population; benefits of and indications for intracavitary therapies; and the preferred management of common treatment complications. Correspondingly, we sought to review the preceding basic science and clinical outcomes literature on pediatric craniopharyngioma, so as to synthesize overarching recommendations, highlight major points of evidence and their conflicts, and assemble a general algorithm for skull base surgeons to use in tailoring treatment plans to the individual patient, tumor, and clinical course. In general terms, we concluded that safe, maximal, hypothalamic-sparing resection provides very good tumor control while minimizing severe deficits. Endoscopic endonasal, intraventricular, and transcranial skull base technique all have clear roles in the armamentarium, alongside standard craniotomies; these roles frequently overlap, and may be further optimized by using the approaches in adaptive combinations. Where aggressive subtotal resection is achieved, patients should be closely followed, with radiation initiated at the time of progression or recurrence-ideally via proton beam therapy, although three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy, intensity-modulated radiotherapy, and stereotactic radiosurgery are very appropriate in a range of circumstances, governed by access, patient age, disease architecture, and character of the recurrence. Perhaps most importantly, outcomes appear to be optimized by consolidated, multidisciplinary care. As such, we recommend treatment in highly experienced centers wherever possible, and emphasize the importance of longitudinal follow-up-particularly given the high incidence of recurrences and complications in a benign disease that effects a young patient population at risk of severe morbidity from hypothalamic or pituitary injury in childhood.

Clinical outcomes following proton therapy for children with central nervous system tumors referred overseas

BACKGROUND

International, multidisciplinary care of children with central nervous system (CNS) tumors presents unique challenges. The aim of this study is to report patient outcomes of U.K. children referred for proton therapy to a North American facility.

METHODS

From 2008 to 2016, 166 U.K. children with approved CNS tumors were treated with proton therapy at a single academic medical center in the United States. Median age was 7 years (range, 1-19). Median follow-up was 2.6 years.

RESULTS

The 3-year actuarial overall survival (OS) and local control (LC) rates were 96% and 91%, respectively, for the overall group, 92% and 85% for the ependymoma subgroup (n = 57), 95% and 88% for the low-grade glioma subgroup (n = 54), and 100% and 100%, respectively, for the craniopharyngioma subgroup (n = 45). Cyst expansion was observed in 13 patients, including one case resulting in visual impairment. Serious side effects included new-onset seizures in three patients (1.8%), symptomatic vasculopathy in three patients (1.8%), and symptomatic brainstem necrosis in one patient (0.6%).

CONCLUSIONS

In this cohort of British children referred overseas for proton therapy, disease control does not appear compromised, toxicity is acceptable, and improvement in long-term function is anticipated in survivors owing to the reduced brain exposure afforded by proton therapy.

Risk-adapted, long-term management in childhood-onset craniopharyngioma

PURPOSE

This report is a review of findings on the diagnosis, treatment, clinical course, follow-up, and prognosis of craniopharyngioma patients with special regard to clinical trials and long-term management.

METHODS

Literature search on Pubmed for paper published after 1994.

RESULTS

Craniopharyngiomas are rare, embryonic malformations of the sellar/parasellar region with low histological grade. Clinical manifestations are related to increased intracranial pressure, visual impairment, and hypothalamic/pituitary deficiencies. If the tumor is favorably localized, therapy of choice is complete resection, with care taken to preserve hypothalamic and optic functions. In patients with unfavorable tumor location (i.e. involvement of hypothalamic areas), recommended therapy is limited hypothalamus-sparing surgical strategy followed by irradiation. Irradiation has proven effective in treatment of recurrences and progression. Surgical lesions and/or anatomical involvement of posterior hypothalamic areas can result in serious sequelae, mainly hypothalamic syndrome.

CONCLUSIONS

It is crucial that craniopharyngioma be managed as a frequently chronic disease, providing ongoing care of pediatric and adult patients' by experienced multidisciplinary teams in the context of multicenter trials.

[Radiotherapy and radiosurgery in treatment of craniopharyngiomas]

Craniopharyngiomas are benign epithelial tumors having a dysembryogenetic origin, which are usually located in the sellar/parasellar and/or third ventricle regions. Gross total resection is the modern standard of treatment for these tumors because of a low recurrence rate. However, this surgery in some patients with craniopharyngioma often leads to the development or worsening of diencephalic disorders poorly responding to treatment. Perhaps, in these cases, subtotal or partial tumor resection or implantation of an Ommaya reservoir into the tumor cyst followed by stereotactic radiotherapy/radiosurgery may provide better functional outcomes and higher life quality in patients, with tumor growth control being reasonable (according to the published data, the mean 10-year disease-free survival is 66.9% after total tumor resection and 79.6% after combined treatment). The paper presents a review of the literature on radiological treatment of craniopharyngiomas. We discuss the issues of indications, optimal timing of radiotherapy/radiosurgery, its efficacy, and treatment outcomes in terms of complications and quality of life. Particular attention is paid to enlargement of craniopharyngioma cysts during and after radiological treatment.

Patterns of care and treatment outcomes of patients with Craniopharyngioma in the national cancer database

To investigate the patterns of care and outcomes in patients with craniopharyngioma in the National Cancer Data Base (NCDB). This study included 697 patients (166 pediatric and 531 adult cases) treated for craniopharyngioma between 2004 and 2012 in the NCDB. Adjuvant radiotherapy (RT) was defined if within 6 months of surgery. Limited surgery (LS) was defined as biopsy or subtotal resection. Proportional-hazards models were used to evaluate associations between covariates and overall survival (OS). A time-dependent analysis of RT was performed to account for early deaths after surgery. Median follow-up was 46 months. Overall, 21% of patients received adjuvant RT. Of patients with known surgical extent (n = 195), 71% had LS. Utilization of adjuvant RT increased from 18% in 2004-2007 to 24% in 2008-2012. Patterns of care regarding adjuvant RT or LS were not significantly different between adult and pediatric patients. Tumor size, low comorbidity, and LS were associated with increased utilization of adjuvant RT. The 5-year OS among patients treated with LS, LS+RT, and gross total resection were 75, 85, and 82% (p = 0.02). On multivariate analysis of the 195 patients with known surgical extent, LS+RT was associated with improved OS compared to LS (HR 0.22, 95% CI 0.05-0.99, p = 0.04), but was not significant when early deaths (<2 months from surgery) were removed to adjust for immortal-time bias. Medical practice regarding surgical approach and adjuvant RT are similar for pediatric and adult craniopharyngiomas. Immortal-time bias may confound assessment of OS for adjuvant RT. Prospective studies comparing adjuvant RT versus observation after LS are warranted.

Growth patterns of craniopharyngiomas: clinical analysis of 226 patients

OBJECT Craniopharyngiomas (CPs) are rare epithelial tumors that are often associated with an enigmatic and unpredictable growth pattern. Understanding the growth patterns of these tumors has a direct impact on surgical planning and may enhance the safety of radical tumor removal. The aim of this study was to analyze the growth patterns and surgical treatment of CPs with a focus on the involvement of the hypothalamopituitary axis and the relationship of the tumor to the arachnoid membrane and surrounding structures. METHODS Clinical data from 226 consecutive patients with primary CP were retrospectively reviewed. Tumor location and the relationship of the tumor to the third ventricle floor and the pituitary stalk were evaluated using preoperative MRI and intraoperative findings. A topographic classification scheme was proposed based on the site of tumor origin and tumor development. The clinical relevance of this classification on patient presentation and outcomes was also analyzed. RESULTS The growth of CPs can be broadly divided into 3 groups based on the site of tumor origin and on tumor-meningeal relationships: Group I, infrasellar/infradiaphragmatic CPs (Id-CPs), which mainly occurred in children; Group II, suprasellar subarachnoid extraventricular CPs (Sa-CPs), which were mainly observed in adults and rarely occurred in children; and Group III, suprasellar subpial ventricular CPs (Sp-CPs), which commonly occurred in both adults and children. Tumors in each group may develop complex growth patterns during vertical expansion along the pituitary stalk. Tumor growth patterns were closely related to both clinical presentation and outcomes. Patients with Sp-CPs had more prevalent weight gain than patients with Id-CPs or Sa-CPs; the rates of significant weight gain were 41.7% for children and 16.7% for adults with Sp-CPs, 2.2% and 7.1% for those with Id-CPs, and 12.5% and 2.6% for those with Sa-CPs (p < 0.001). Moreover, patients with Sp-CPs had increased hypothalamic dysfunction after radical removal; 39% of patients with Sp-CPs, 14.5% with Id-CPs, and 17.4% with Sa-CPs had high-grade hypothalamic dysfunction in the first 2 postoperative years (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS The classification of CPs based on growth pattern may elucidate the best course of treatment for this formidable tumor. More tailored, individualized surgical strategies based on tumor growth patterns are mandatory to provide long-term tumor control and to minimize damage to hypothalamic structures. Differences in the distribution of growth patterns between children and adults imply that hierarchical comparison is necessary when investigating outcomes and survival across treatment paradigms in patients with CP.

Hydrocephalus and hypothalamic involvement in pediatric patients with craniopharyngioma or cysts of Rathke's pouch: impact on long-term prognosis

OBJECTIVE

Pediatric patients with sellar masses such as craniopharyngioma (CP) or cyst of Rathke's pouch (CRP) frequently suffer disease- and treatment-related sequelae. We analyzed the impact and prognostic relevance of initial hydrocephalus (HY) and hypothalamic involvement (HI) on long-term survival and functional capacity (FC) in children with CP or CRP.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

Using retrospective analysis of patient records, presence of initial HY or HI was assessed in 177 pediatric patients (163 CP and 14 CRP). Twenty-year overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS), FC, and BMI were analyzed with regard to initial HY, degree of resection, or HI.

RESULTS

Of the 177 patients, 105 patients (103/163 CP and 2/14 CRP) presented with initial HY and 96 presented with HI. HY at diagnosis was associated (P=0.000) with papilledema, neurological deficits, and higher BMI at diagnosis and during follow-up. OS, PFS, and FC were not affected by HY at initial diagnosis. HI at diagnosis (96/177) had major negative impact on long-term prognosis. Sellar masses with HI were associated with lower OS (0.84±0.04; P=0.021), lower FC (P=0.003), and higher BMI at diagnosis and last follow-up (P=0.000) when compared with sellar masses without HI (OS: 0.94±0.05). PFS was not affected by HI or degree of resection.

CONCLUSIONS

Initial HY has no impact on outcome in patients with sellar masses. OS and FC are impaired in survivors presenting with initial HI. PFS is not affected by HY, HI, or degree of resection. Accordingly, gross-total resection is not recommended in sellar masses with initial HI to prevent further hypothalamic damage.

Survival, hypothalamic obesity, and neuropsychological/psychosocial status after childhood-onset craniopharyngioma: newly reported long-term outcomes

BACKGROUND

Quality of life (QoL) and long-term prognosis are frequently, and often severely, impaired in craniopharyngioma (CP) patients. Knowledge of risk factors for long-term outcome is important for optimization of treatment.

METHODS

Overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS), body mass index (BMI), neuropsychological status (EORTCQLQ-C30, MFI-20), and psychosocial status were analyzed in 261 patients with childhood-onset CP diagnosed before 2000 and longitudinally observed in HIT-Endo.

RESULTS

Twenty-year OS was lower (P = .006) in CP with hypothalamic involvement (HI) (n = 132; 0.84 ± 0.04) when compared with CP without HI (n = 82; 0.95 ± 0.04). OS was not related to degree of resection, sex, age at diagnosis, or year of diagnosis (before/after 1990). PFS (n = 168; 0.58 ± 0.05) was lower in younger patients (<5 y at diagnosis) (n = 30; 0.39 ± 0.10) compared with patients aged 5-10 years (n = 66; 0.52 ± 0.08) and older than 10 years (n = 72; 0.77 ± 0.06) at diagnosis. PFS was not associated with HI, degree of resection, or sex. HI led to severe weight gain during the first 8-12 years of follow-up (median BMI increase: +4.59SD) compared with no HI (median increase: +1.20SD) (P = .00). During >12 years of follow-up, patients with HI presented no further increase in BMI. QoL in CP patients with HI was impaired by obesity, physical fatigue, reduced motivation, dyspnea, diarrhea, and nonoptimal psychosocial development.

CONCLUSIONS

OS and QoL are impaired by HI in long-term survivors of CP. HI is associated with severe obesity, which plateaus after 12 years. OS/PFS are not related to degree of resection, but gross-total resection should be avoided in cases of HI to prevent further hypothalamic damage, which exacerbates sequelae.

Long-term disease control and toxicity outcomes following surgery and intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) in pediatric craniopharyngioma

PURPOSE

To report long-term progression-free survival (PFS) and late-toxicity outcomes in pediatric craniopharyngioma patients treated with IMRT.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Twenty-four children were treated with IMRT to a median dose of 50.4Gy (range, 49.8-54Gy). The clinical target volume (CTV) was the gross tumor volume (GTV) with a 1cm margin. The planning target volume (PTV) was the CTV with a 3-5mm margin. Median follow-up was 107.3months.

RESULTS

The 5- and 10-year PFS rates were 65.8% and 60.7%. The 5- and 10-year cystic PFS rates were 70.2% and 65.2% while the 5- and 10-year solid PFS were the same at 90.7%. Endocrinopathy was seen in 42% at initial diagnosis and in 74% after surgical intervention, prior to IMRT. Hypothalamic dysfunction and visual deficits were associated with increasing PTV and number of surgical interventions.

CONCLUSIONS

IMRT is a viable treatment option for pediatric craniopharyngioma. Despite the use of IMRT, majority of the craniopharyngioma patients experienced long-term toxicity, many of which present prior to radiotherapy. Limitations of retrospective analyses on small patient cohort elicit the need for a prospective multi-institutional study to determine the absolute benefit of IMRT in pediatric craniopharyngioma.

Long term results after fractionated stereotactic radiotherapy (FSRT) in patients with craniopharyngioma: maximal tumor control with minimal side effects

Purpose

There are already numerous reports about high local control rates in patients with craniopharyngioma but there are only few studies with follow up times of more than 10 years. This study is an analysis of long term control, tumor response and side effects after fractionated stereotactic radiotherapy (FSRT) for patients with craniopharyngioma.

Patients and methods

55 patients who were treated with FSRT for craniopharyngioma were analyzed. Median age was 37 years (range 6–70 years), among them eight children < 18 years. Radiotherapy (RT) was indicated for progressive disease after neurosurgical resection or postoperatively after repeated resection or partial resection. A median dose of 52.2 Gy (50 – 57.6 Gy) was applied with typical dose per fraction of 1.8 Gy five times per week. The regular follow up examinations comprised in addition to contrast enhanced MRI scans thorough physical examinations and clinical evaluation.

Results

During median follow up of 128 months (2 – 276 months) local control rate was 95.3% after 5 years, 92.1% after 10 years and 88.1% after 20 years. Overall survival after 10 years was 83.3% and after 20 years 67.8% whereby none of the deaths were directly attributed to craniopharyngioma. Overall treatment was tolerated well with almost no severe acute or chronic side effects. One patient developed complete anosmia, another one’s initially impaired vision deteriorated further. In 83.6% of the cases with radiological follow up a regression of irradiated tumor residues was monitored, in 7 cases complete response was achieved. 44 patients presented themselves initially with endocrinologic dysfunction none of them showed signs of further deterioration during follow up. No secondary malignancies were observed.

Conclusion

Long term results for patients with craniopharyngioma after stereotactic radiotherapy are with respect to low treatment related side effects as well as to local control and overall survival excellent.

Craniopharyngioma

This report is a review of findings on the diagnosis, treatment, clinical course, and prognosis of craniopharyngioma patients. Craniopharyngiomas are rare, partly cystic and calcified embryonic malformations of the sellar/parasellar region with low histological grade (WHO I°). A bimodal age distribution has been shown, with peak incidence rates in childhood-onset at 5-14 years and adult-onset craniopharyngioma at 50-74 years. Clinical manifestations are related to hypothalamic/pituitary deficiencies, visual impairment, and increased intracranial pressure. If the tumor is favorably localized, the therapy of choice is complete resection, with care taken to preserve optical and hypothalamic functions. In patients with unfavorable tumor localization (i.e., hypothalamic involvement), recommended therapy is a limited hypothalamus-sparing surgical strategy followed by local irradiation. Although overall survival rates are high (92%), recurrences and progressions are frequent. Irradiation has proven effective in reducing recurrences and progression, and timing of postsurgical irradiation in childhood-onset cases is currently under investigation in a randomized multinational trial (KRANIOPHARYNGEOM 2007). Anatomical involvement and/or surgical lesions of posterior hypothalamic areas can result in serious quality of life-compromising sequelae such as hypothalamic obesity, psychopathological symptoms, and/or cognitive problems. It is crucial that craniopharyngioma be managed as a frequently chronic disease, providing ongoing care of pediatric and adult patients' clinical and quality of life consequences by experienced multidisciplinary teams.

Craniopharyngioma

Craniopharyngiomas are partly cystic embryogenic malformations of the sellar and parasellar region. With an overall incidence of 0.5-2.0 new cases per million population per year, approximately 30-50% of all cases represent childhood craniopharyngioma. Typical manifestations at diagnosis are some combination of headache, visual impairment, polyuria/polydypsia, growth retardation, and significant weight gain. Therapy of choice in patients with favorable tumor localization is complete resection with specific focus on maintaining functions of the optic nerve and hypothalamic-pituitary axes. In patients whose unfavorable tumor localization makes maintaining hypothalamic functionality surgically challenging, a limited resection followed by local irradiation is recommended. The overall survival rates are high (92%) but occurrences of reduced quality of life are also high. Recurrences after complete resection and progressions of residual tumor after incomplete resection are frequent postsurgical events. Because irradiation is efficient in preventing tumor progression, appropriate timing of postsurgical irradiation is currently under investigation in the randomized multinational trial KRANIOPHARYNGEOM 2007 that analyzes quality of life as primary endpoint. Childhood craniopharyngioma should be recognized as a chronic disease requiring constant monitoring of the clinical and quality of life consequences in order to provide optimal care of surviving patients.

Minimally invasive management of adult craniopharyngiomas: An analysis of our series and review of literature

Background:

Craniopharyngiomas (CPs) are slow growing tumors with an incidence of between 1.2% and 4.6%, having a bimodal age distribution typically peaking in childhood and in adults between 45 and 60 years. Recurrences occur even after documented gross total resections necessitating a combination of therapeutic strategies. Obtaining a cure of this tumor in adults without producing major side effects continues to remain elusive.

Methods:

We describe our results in 11 patients with CP treated in a minimally invasive fashion using a combination of techniques like burr hole aspiration, Ommaya reservoir placement, ventriculo-peritoneal (VP) shunting and focal radiation (Gamma Knife stereotactic radiosurgery/Intensity modulated radiotherapy [GKRS/IMRT]).

Results:

Visual function remained intact in all patients; endocrine status remained stable with two patients developing new postoperative diabetes insipidus. There was no periprocedural morbidity or mortality, with hospital stays for any in-patient procedure being 48 hours or less.

Conclusions:

Minimally invasive techniques such as cyst aspiration, insertion of a catheter with Ommaya reservoir, when combined with stereotactic radiosurgery/IMRT is an effective and safe option for management and long-term control of adult CPs. We believe the Ommaya catheter by itself could act as a stent, creating a tract allowing gradual drainage of cyst fluid and stabilization without necessitating any further interventions in selected cases.

Long-term outcomes for adult craniopharyngioma following radiation therapy

BACKGROUND

We report long-term outcomes in adult patients with craniopharyngioma following surgery and radiation therapy (RT).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Fifty-three patients treated with RT (median, 50 Gy in 25 fractions) between 1980 and 2009 with pathologically confirmed craniopharyngioma were reviewed (53% solid and 47% cystic/solid). The median age was 53 years (range, 22-76), 53% were female, 83% were sub-totally resected, 6% were gross totally resected and 11% had a biopsy and/or cyst aspiration alone. RT was delivered adjuvantly in 53% of patients as opposed to salvage intent upon progression.

RESULTS

Median follow-up was seven years (86 months, range, 8-259). The 5- and 10-year progression-free survival (PFS) rates were 85% and 69%, overall survival (OS) rates were 76% and 70%, and cause-specific survival (CSS) rates were both 88%, respectively. Both univariable and multivariable analysis identified age (<53 or ≥53) as a prognostic factor for OS (p =0.0003) and CSS (p =0.05). PFS was observed to be worse in patients with >2 surgeries prior to RT (p =0.01). Neither the intent of radiation or tumor type (cystic vs. solid/cystic) were prognostic or predictive. New endocrinopathies and visual dysfunction were observed in 53% and 17% of patients post-surgery, and in 11% and 6% post-RT, respectively.

CONCLUSION

We report long-term favorable PFS, CSS and OS for craniopharyngioma post-RT. We observe age as a significant prognostic factor, however, timing of radiation was not.

The therapeutic efficacy of fractionated radiotherapy and gamma-knife radiosurgery for craniopharyngiomas

There is no consensus regarding the optimal timing of radiation treatment (RT) for residual or recurrent craniopharyngioma or the preferred treatment modality between fractionated radiotherapy (FRT) and gamma-knife radiosurgery (GKRS) in terms of morbidity and efficacy. This study aims to clarify the optimal timing of RT for residual or recurrent tumors by analyzing the outcomes of RT as a salvage or adjunctive treatment, and to compare the therapeutic efficacy of FRT and GKRS. Between April 1995 and November 2009, 50 of 129 patients received RT for recurrent or residual tumors. The patients were analyzed for medical data, endocrine outcome, long-term morbidity and mortality rates, recurrence rates, and responses to adjuvant RT and GKRS. Mean progression-free survival was 92.5 months (95% confidence interval, 70.9-114.1 months). Univariate analysis revealed that pre-irradiation tumor volume was closely related to better prognosis (p=0.01). We found that there was no significant difference in recurrence between patients treated with adjuvant compared to salvage RT (p>0.05). Although we found no difference in the efficacy of FRT and GKRS, five patients were newly diagnosed with hypopituitarism following RT. We concluded that RT has a very high rate of tumor control after both adjuvant or salvage RT. This study highlights the relative safety and efficacy of FRT and GKRS.

Modern radiotherapy approaches in the management of craniopharyngiomas

An audit of treatment regimens at presentation, recurrence and survival rates spanning 37 years were reviewed for children and adults with craniopharyngioma treated at The Prince of Wales or the Sydney Children's hospitals. Eligibility criteria stipulated all patients (n=41) received radiotherapy as part of their treatment course. The primary end point for evaluation was the incidence of radiological progression post-radiotherapy, and secondary end-points were the symptomatic and hormonal status post-radiotherapy. There were 12 paediatric patients (age, <16 years) and 29 adults (age range, 16-80 years). Of the 41 patients, 39 had a suprasellar tumour component, and 38 had radiologically persistent disease post-surgery. Four patients were treated by radiosurgery (median volume treated, 3.5 cm(3)); four patients progressed post-radiotherapy, of whom two were salvaged by further radiotherapy, one succumbed to progressive local disease, and one had a small intrasellar recurrence surgically resected. Progression-free survival (95.12%) was followed for up to 23 years. Thus, subtotal resection and the modern radiotherapy approach is likely to provide excellent patient and disease outcomes.

Ectopic recurrence of a craniopharyngioma in a 15-year-old girl 9 years after surgery and conventional radiotherapy: case report

This 15-year-old girl was operated due to an ectopic recurrence of a craniopharyngioma along the previous surgical route. She presented with a sellar craniopharyngioma at the age of 4 years and underwent a right subfrontal craniotomy. Two and a half years later she had a local recurrence in the sella that was resected along the same surgical route. Postoperative cranial radiotherapy was administered with 50 Gy divided into 28 fractions. Nine years later, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed a local recurrence within the sella together with a supraorbital cystic mass. Both tumors were surgically removed. Microscopic examination revealed recurrence of an adamantinous craniopharyngioma at both localisations. Histopathological preparations showed a higher MIB-1 index at the simultaneous recurrences in the sella and in the frontal lobe and also an elevated focal p53 expression, compared to previous operations, suggesting a transformation to a more aggressive tumor. This is the first case report of ectopic recurrence in a child that had received conventional radiotherapy of 50 Gy to the sella. Careful intra-operative procedure is probably crucial for preventing ectopic recurrences. The future will reveal if the transsphenoidal surgical route will put an end to ectopic tumor recurrence in patients with a craniopharyngioma.

Different approaches in radiation therapy of craniopharyngioma

Radiation therapy is a cornerstone in the therapeutic management of craniopharyngioma. The close proximity to neighboring eloquent structures pose a particular challenge to radiation therapy. Modern treatment technologies including fractionated 3-D conformal radiotherapy, intensity modulated radiation therapy, and recently proton therapy are able to precisely cover the target while preserving surrounding tissue, Tumor controls between 80 and in access of 90% can be achieved. Alternative treatments consisting of radiosurgery, intracavitary application of isotopes, and brachytherapy also offer an acceptable tumor control and might be given in selected cases. More research is needed to establish the role of each treatment modality.

The role of radiosurgery in the treatment of craniopharyngiomas

The treatment of craniopharyngiomas is composed of an intricate balance of multiple modalities. Resection and radiotherapy have been combined to synergistically control tumor growth while preventing undue harm to crucial neurovascular structures. Although a craniopharyngioma is a benign lesion pathologically, it may induce severe neurological injury due to its location and rate of growth. More recently, the advent of targeted, fractionated radiotherapy has allowed for more aggressive tumor control while reducing the necessity for large resections. Initial studies have demonstrated significant tumor control in patients who are treated with resection combined with radiation therapy, versus surgery alone, with a lower rate of treatment-associated neurological deficits. In this review, a detailed account of the current studies evaluating the role of stereotactic radiosurgery in the management of craniopharyngiomas is presented. The authors also provide a short account of their experience to aid in defining the role of CyberKnife radiosurgery.

Craniopharyngioma: a comparison of tumor control with various treatment strategies

OBJECT

Craniopharyngiomas have a propensity to recur after resection, potentially causing death through their aggressive local behavior in their critical site of origin. Recent data suggest that subtotal resection (STR) followed by adjuvant radiotherapy (XRT) may be an appealing substitute for gross-total resection (GTR), providing similar rates of tumor control without the morbidity associated with aggressive resection. Here, the authors summarize the published literature regarding rates of tumor control with various treatment modalities for craniopharyngiomas.

METHODS

The authors performed a comprehensive search of the English language literature to identify studies publishing outcome data on patients undergoing surgery for craniopharyngioma. Rates of progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) were determined through Kaplan-Meier analysis.

RESULTS

There were 442 patients who underwent tumor resection. Among these patients, GTR was achieved in 256 cases (58%), STR in 101 cases (23%), and STR+XRT in 85 cases (19%). The 2- and 5-year PFS rates for the GTR group versus the STR+XRT group were 88 versus 91%, and 67 versus 69%, respectively. The 5- and 10-year OS rates for the GTR group versus the STR+XRT group were 98 versus 99%, and 98 versus 95%, respectively. There was no significant difference in PFS (log-rank test) or OS with GTR (log-rank test).

CONCLUSIONS

Given the relative rarity of craniopharyngioma, this study provides estimates of outcome for a variety of treatment combinations, as not all treatments are an option for all patients with these tumors.

Endocrinologic, neurologic, and visual morbidity after treatment for craniopharyngioma

Craniopharyngiomas are locally aggressive tumors which typically are focused in the sellar and suprasellar region near a number of critical neural and vascular structures mediating endocrinologic, behavioral, and visual functions. The present study aims to summarize and compare the published literature regarding morbidity resulting from treatment of craniopharyngioma. We performed a comprehensive search of the published English language literature to identify studies publishing outcome data of patients undergoing surgery for craniopharyngioma. Comparisons of the rates of endocrine, vascular, neurological, and visual complications were performed using Pearson’s chi-squared test, and covariates of interest were fitted into a multivariate logistic regression model. In our data set, 540 patients underwent surgical resection of their tumor. 138 patients received biopsy alone followed by some form of radiotherapy. Mean overall follow-up for all patients in these studies was 54 ± 1.8 months. The overall rate of new endocrinopathy for all patients undergoing surgical resection of their mass was 37% (95% CI = 33–41). Patients receiving GTR had over 2.5 times the rate of developing at least one endocrinopathy compared to patients receiving STR alone or STR + XRT (52 vs. 19 vs. 20%, χ²P < 0.00001). On multivariate analysis, GTR conferred a significant increase in the risk of endocrinopathy compared to STR + XRT (OR = 3.45, 95% CI = 2.05–5.81, P < 0.00001), after controlling for study size and the presence of significant hypothalamic involvement. There was a statistical trend towards worse visual outcomes in patients receiving XRT after STR compared to GTR or STR alone (GTR = 3.5% vs. STR 2.1% vs. STR + XRT 6.4%, P = 0.11). Given the difficulty in obtaining class 1 data regarding the treatment of this tumor, this study can serve as an estimate of expected outcomes for these patients, and guide decision making until these data are available.

Mortality in patients with pituitary disease

Pituitary disease is associated with increased mortality predominantly due to vascular disease. Control of cortisol secretion and GH hypersecretion (and cardiovascular risk factor reduction) is key in the reduction of mortality in patients with Cushing's disease and acromegaly, retrospectively. For patients with acromegaly, the role of IGF-I is less clear-cut. Confounding pituitary hormone deficiencies such as gonadotropins and particularly ACTH deficiency (with higher doses of hydrocortisone replacement) may have a detrimental effect on outcome in patients with pituitary disease. Pituitary radiotherapy is a further factor that has been associated with increased mortality (particularly cerebrovascular). Although standardized mortality ratios in pituitary disease are falling due to improved treatment, mortality for many conditions are still elevated above that of the general population, and therefore further measures are needed. Craniopharyngioma patients have a particularly increased risk of mortality as a result of the tumor itself and treatment to control tumor growth; this is a key area for future research in order to optimize the outcome for these patients.