Suicide in the Indigenous Population of Latin America: A Systematic Review

Profiles of suicide attempted in children and adolescents

OBJECTIVE

Suicide attempt (SA) is the strongest predictive variable for completed suicide. The Department of Cauca in Colombia has an SA rate higher than the national average, but the factors are unknown. The objective was to identify the profiles of SA in children and adolescents of Cauca.

METHODS

Cross-sectional study, which included all SA (Event-356) records from the SIVIGILA platform in children under 18 years of age between 2016 and 2019. The authors described the variables and multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) with the Burt method, according to the completeness of the data to establish the possible SA profiles using STATA 15.1, and R. The Ethics Committee at Universidad del Cauca approved it.

RESULTS

The study found 977 SA during this period, 72.4% female, 97.1% adolescent, 74.4% mestizo, 19.3% indigenous, 45.3% resided in municipalities exposed to the armed conflict, 32.3% expressed ideation and previous attempts, and 15.5% prior attempts. The MCA included 810 SA and identified three profiles: "Classic", which had mestizo adolescents with a history of prior SA, mental illness, or psychoactive substance use problems; "Related to the armed conflict", which included female adolescents with a first SA and residents in municipalities exposed to the armed conflict; "Ethnic" represented by male indigenous, with housing in a rural area.

CONCLUSION

The SA profiles found in Cauca were "Classic", "Related to the armed conflict", and "Ethnic"; these can be considered to implement prevention strategies from a cross-cultural, mental health, and gender perspective, with the presence of the state in the territories.

Using the project ECHO™ model to teach mental health topics in rural Guatemala: An implementation science-guided evaluation

BACKGROUND

Mental health (MH) disorders are major causes of disability in Guatemala. Unfortunately, limited academic training and funding resources make MH care inaccessible to most people in rural Guatemala. These disparities leave many indigenous populations without care. Project ECHO™ is an educational model used globally to deliver virtual training for providers in rural/ underserved communities. The aim of this project was to implement and evaluate a Project ECHO™ program bridging MH training gaps for providers who serve rural communities in Guatemala.

METHODS

The Project ECHO™ curriculum was implemented through a partnership between educational and nonprofit institutions in Guatemala City and the United States. Participants were primary care physicians and nurses working in rural Guatemala as well as medical/nursing/psychology students. Evaluation of its implementation was guided by a RE-AIM framework. Reach, effectiveness, adoption, fidelity, sustainability, acceptability, feasibility, and appropriateness were evaluated using a mixed-methods approach, using a pre-post survey and semi-structured focus groups.

RESULTS

Forty unique participants attended the five sessions. Attitudes about mental health did not change quantitatively but self-efficacy improved in four of five modules. High quality fidelity scores were noted in two of five sessions. Sustainability scores across multiple domains were highly rated. Scores on instruments measuring acceptability, feasibility, and appropriateness were high. Focus groups showed two main themes: the curriculum filled a gap in education and further adaptation of the model might help improve the experience.

CONCLUSION

Implementation of the Project ECHO™ educational model appeared to have good reach/adoption, showed improvements in self-efficacy, illuminated facilitators and barriers to sustainability, and was felt to be acceptable, feasible, and appropriate. Qualitative analysis supported these conclusions. Future directions would include ongoing evaluation and monitoring of further Project ECHO™ curricular experiences through this partnership and adaptation of this project to other learners and settings in Latin America.

Suicide among Indigenous peoples in Brazil from 2000 to 2020: a descriptive study

Background

Previous studies in Australia, Canada, and Brazil, found that suicide among ethnic minority groups is higher than in the general population. Indigenous peoples in Brazil have been reported to have a high suicide rate, with reports of suicide clusters occurring in several communities. The objective of this study was to report trends in countrywide suicide rates among Indigenous peoples in Brazil between 2000 and 2020, and to compare these with the non-Indigenous population.

Methods

This ecological study used Indigenous suicide data collected from all regions of Brazil during a 21-year period, between 2000 and 2020. We used suicide estimates from the Mortality Information System (SIM), available at the Brazilian Health Ministry website (DATASUS). Suicide mortality rates by state and region were calculated using the estimated Indigenous population from the 2010 census, and estimated population proportions for the other years. We performed a trend analysis and compared trends in suicide between the Indigenous and non-Indigenous population during the period studied.

Findings

Suicide rates among Indigenous Brazilians have reached more than two and a half times the levels for the overall Brazilian population in 2020 (17.57 suicide deaths versus 6.35 suicide deaths per 100,000 inhabitants, respectively). The Central-West region of Brazil had the highest suicide rates among Indigenous Brazilians over the study period, reaching 58.8 deaths/100,000 inhabitants in 2008. The younger age group (10-24 years old) had the highest suicide rates for all the years studied. Time-series analyses showed a trend of statistically significant increases in suicide rates in Brazil for both the Indigenous and non-Indigenous population during the study period. The North region, and specifically Amazonas state, has shown a decisive increase in suicide rates among the Indigenous populations. The suicide rate for Indigenous people in Brazil, excluding cases in Amazonas and Mato Grosso do Sul states, were similar to those for the entire Brazilian population, showing that the Indigenous peoples who are the most vulnerable to suicide reside in these locations.

Interpretation

While there were statistically significant increases in suicide rates for all Brazilians over the study period, they remained alarmingly high among Indigenous people, compared to their non-Indigenous counterparts. The high suicide rates among Indigenous people, and younger individuals in particular (aged between 10 and 24), reinforces the need for specific prevention strategies for these populations. Further studies should be concentrated on determining risk factors in distinct ethnic groups, specifically within regions experiencing an elevated risk, such as the states of Amazonas and Mato Grosso do Sul.

Funding

Research reported in this publication was supported by the National Institute of Mental Health of the National Institutes of Health under award number R01MH128911-01. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health.

Centering Indigenous knowledge in suicide prevention: a critical scoping review

BACKGROUND

Indigenous peoples of Canada, United States, Australia, and New Zealand experience disproportionately high rates of suicide as a result of the collective and shared trauma experienced with colonization and ongoing marginalization. Dominant, Western approaches to suicide prevention-typically involving individual-level efforts for behavioural change via mental health professional intervention-by themselves have largely failed at addressing suicide in Indigenous populations, possibly due to cultural misalignment with Indigenous paradigms. Consequently, many Indigenous communities, organizations and governments have been undertaking more cultural and community-based approaches to suicide prevention. To provide a foundation for future research and inform prevention efforts in this context, this critical scoping review summarizes how Indigenous approaches have been integrated in suicide prevention initiatives targeting Indigenous populations.

METHODS

A systematic search guided by a community-based participatory research (CBPR) approach was conducted in twelve electronic bibliographic databases for academic literature and six databases for grey literature to identify relevant articles. the reference lists of articles that were selected via the search strategy were hand-searched in order to include any further articles that may have been missed. Articles were screened and assessed for eligibility. From eligible articles, data including authors, year of publication, type of publication, objectives of the study, country, target population, type of suicide prevention strategy, description of suicide prevention strategy, and main outcomes of the study were extracted. A thematic analysis approach guided by Métis knowledge and practices was also applied to synthesize and summarize the findings.

RESULTS

Fifty-six academic articles and 16 articles from the grey literature were examined. Four overarching and intersecting thematic areas emerged out of analysis of the academic and grey literature: (1) engaging culture and strengthening connectedness; (2) integrating Indigenous knowledge; (3) Indigenous self-determination; and (4) employing decolonial approaches.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings demonstrate how centering Indigenous knowledge and approaches within suicide prevention positively contribute to suicide-related outcomes. Initiatives built upon comprehensive community engagement processes and which incorporate Indigenous culture, knowledge, and decolonizing methods have been shown to have substantial impact on suicide-related outcomes at the individual- and community-level. Indigenous approaches to suicide prevention are diverse, drawing on local culture, knowledge, need and priorities.

Suicide rates amongst individuals from ethnic minority backgrounds: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Existing evidence suggests that some individuals from ethnic minority backgrounds are at increased risk of suicide compared to their majority ethnic counterparts, whereas others are at decreased risk. We aimed to estimate the absolute and relative risk of suicide in individuals from ethnic minority backgrounds globally.

METHODS

Databases (Medline, Embase, and PsycInfo) were searched for epidemiological studies between 01/01/2000 and 3/07/2020, which provided data on absolute and relative rates of suicide amongst ethnic minority groups. Studies reporting on clinical or specific populations were excluded. Pairs of reviewers independently screened titles, abstracts, and full texts. We used random effects meta-analysis to estimate overall, sex, location, migrant status, and ancestral origin, stratified pooled estimates for absolute and rate ratios. PROSPERO registration: CRD42020197940.

FINDINGS

A total of 128 studies were included with 6,026,103 suicide deaths in individuals from an ethnic minority background across 31 countries. Using data from 42 moderate-high quality studies, we estimated a pooled suicide rate of 12·1 per 100,000 (95% CIs 8·4-17·6) in people from ethnic minority backgrounds with a broad range of estimates (1·2-139·7 per 100,000). There was weak statistical evidence from 51 moderate-high quality studies that individuals from ethnic minority groups were more likely to die by suicide (RR 1·3 95% CIs 0·9-1·7) with again a broad range amongst studies (RR 0·2-18·5). In our sub-group analysis we only found evidence of elevated risk for indigenous populations (RR: 2·8 95% CIs 1·9-4·0; pooled rate: 23·2 per 100,000 95% CIs 14·7-36·6). There was very substantial heterogeneity (I²  > 98%) between studies for all pooled estimates.

INTERPRETATION

The homogeneous grouping of individuals from ethnic minority backgrounds is inappropriate. To support suicide prevention in marginalised groups, further exploration of important contextual differences in risk is required. It is possible that some ethnic minority groups (for example those from indigenous backgrounds) have higher rates of suicide than majority populations.

FUNDING

No specific funding was provided to conduct this research. DK is funded by Wellcome Trust and Elizabeth Blackwell Institute Bristol. Matthew Spittal is a recipient of an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (project number FT180100075) funded by the Australian Government. Rebecca Musgrove is funded by the NIHR Greater Manchester Patient Safety Translational Research Centre (PSTRC-2016-003).

Suicidal ideation in an ethnically mixed, highland Guatemalan community

Reported suicide rates in Latin America remain low, but there is evidence to suggest they may be increasing, particularly among indigenous populations. To better understand who may be at risk for suicide, we examined the prevalence of suicidal ideation and explored factors contributing to suicidal thoughts in an ethnically mixed, highland Guatemalan community. The data presented in this article are from a mixed methods ethnographic field project conducted over 15 months from 2010 to 2011 in Panajachel, Guatemala. We surveyed a random sample of 350 community members. Survey questions included standardized modules from the Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview, as well as questions on experiences of violence and mental health care. We also conducted semi-structured interviews with 13 self-selected survey participants with current suicidal ideation. These interviews included questions regarding survey responses, experiences of mental illness, and access to mental health care. A total of 55 survey participants (N = 350; 15.7%) scored positive for suicidality. Ethnic identity, gender, psychiatric illness, and experiences of violence were all correlated to suicidal ideation. Qualitative interview data highlight distinctions between genders within prominent themes of religion, family, experiences of violence, and seeking resources. Three key findings emerged from our research that are relevant to the literature: 1) ethnic identity may be both a critical risk and a protective factor for suicide in some indigenous people; 2) intersections between violence and gender highlight different patterns in suicidal ideation; and 3) high rates of suicidal ideation and other psychiatric comorbidities underscore the need for greater access to mental health services.

Mortalidade proporcional nos povos indígenas no Brasil nos anos 2000, 2010 e 2018

RESUMO O objetivo do estudo foi analisar a mortalidade indígena no Brasil em 2000, 2010 e 2018. Estudo descritivo com dados do Sistema de Informação sobre Mortalidade. Calculou-se a mortalidade proporcional entre indígenas e restante da população brasileira, segundo idade, sexo, causa e regiões do Brasil. A proporção de óbitos em indígenas menores de 1 ano em 2000, 2010 e 2018 foi de 15,3%, 17,7% e 16,2%; e no restante do Brasil, foi de 7,2%, 3,5% e 2,7% respectivamente. A proporção de óbitos a partir de 50 anos nos indígenas nos mesmos anos foi de 47,0%, 48,1% e 52,0%; e no restante do Brasil, foi de 66,8%, 74,4% e 79,4%. Em 2018, indígenas menores de 1 ano morreram mais de afecções perinatais (39,4%), doenças infecciosas e parasitárias (10,1%) e causas externas (9,8%). Em menores de 1 ano do restante da população brasileira, essas causas corresponderam a 57,8%, 3,8% e 2,8%. Indígenas acima de 50 anos morreram mais por doenças circulatórias (28,6%), respiratórias (15,4%) e neoplasias (14,6%); e no restante da população brasileira, essas causas representaram 31,5%, 13,6% e 19,0%. Evidenciaram-se desigualdades em saúde e piores indicadores nos povos indígenas no Brasil.

Suicide in indigenous and non-indigenous population: a contribution to health management

OBJECTIVE

To analyze the sociodemographic and epidemiological profile of suicide in the indigenous and non-indigenous population and the spatiality of the event.

METHOD

Epidemiological, descriptive research, carried out with data from the Mortality Information System. Suicide mortality rates were calculated for the 144 municipalities in Pará and linked to the geographic location values of the municipalities; subsequently, thematic maps were built using the QGIS 3.10.3 software. The association between variables was measured by the G test.

RESULTS

1,387 suicide records were studied, and the mortality rate among indigenous people was low in comparison to non-indigenous people, reaching 0.1/100 thousand inhabitants and 17.5/100 thousand inhabitants, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Suicide is heterogeneously distributed in the territory, with greater vulnerability of the indigenous people, which demands different policies considering their cultural diversity.

The Social Gradient in Mental Health and Well-Being for Indigenous Older Adults Living in Rural Areas: A Cross-Sectional Comparison With Rural Non-indigenous Population in Chile

Objectives: To compare differences in depression, loneliness and personal well-being in a sample made up of indigenous (Aymara and Mapuche) and non-indigenous older people resident in original rural territories. Methods: A cross-sectional study involving 800 older adults living in a rural context in Chile, of whom 201 were Aymara, 368 Mapuche and 231 non-indigenous. Validated instruments were included for depression, loneliness and personal well-being (outcome variables). Ordinary least squares regression analyses were performed. Results: Membership of an indigenous group was significantly associated with lower scores for depression and loneliness and higher scores for personal well-being. The interactions of severe deprivation and housing deprivation with indigenous group membership were significantly associated with lower loneliness scores and higher personal well-being scores for Aymara and Mapuche participants. Discussion: Native rural settings and territories may offer a degree of protection to indigenous peoples. Cultural continuity enhanced by rural areas would produce a culturally constructed resilience against deprivation.

An Explanatory Model of Suicidal Behaviour in Indigenous Peoples of the Department of Vaupés, Colombia

INTRODUCTION

Suicidal behaviour is a global public health problem. Indigenous peoples are one of the most vulnerable populations.

OBJECTIVE

To establish an explanatory model of the suicidal behaviour of the indigenous peoples of the department of Vaupés.

METHODS

Mixed qualitative-quantitative study with the population of Vaupés. A univariate analysis of local databases, and implementation of different qualitative data collection techniques in the field, with hermeneutic analysis following guidelines proposed by other authors.

RESULTS

Suicidal behaviour is a problem for the indigenous peoples of Vaupés. Different explanations for these behaviours involving traditional and structural aspects are integrated in an explanatory model, which makes it possible to guide action.

CONCLUSIONS

The explanatory model makes it possible to advance socioculturally in the appropriate way to address suicidal behaviours, and opens up new possibilities for interaction with other healthcare models.

[Suicide and indigenous populations in Brazil: systematic reviewEl suicidio y los pueblos indígenas brasileños: revisión sistemática]

Objective

To describe the frequency, characteristics, and factors contributing to suicide in indigenous populations in Brazil.

Method

A systematic review of the literature was performed in PubMed, SciELO, PsycINFO, and LILACS. All population-based studies focusing on suicide among indigenous populations in Brazil were included.

Results

The search identified 111 articles, of which nine met the inclusion criteria. Three of these studies were performed in the Midwest and four in the North of Brazil, while two covered all Brazilian regions. The ethnic groups investigated were specified in three studies (Terena, Kadiweu, Guato, Ofaie-Xavante, Guarani, Guarani-Kaiowá, and Guarani-Nandeva). Suicide rates were highest among males, single individuals, those with 4 to 11 years of schooling, and those aged 15 to 24 years. Suicides occurred most often in the home and on weekends, mostly by hanging. The main risk factors for suicide identified in the articles were poverty, historical and cultural factors, poor wellbeing indicators, family disintegration, social vulnerability, and lack of life or future perspective.

Conclusions

All the studies indicated the need to engage communities in developing strategies, considering their cosmovision and the social, historic, and cultural view of each ethnic group to minimize risk factors and reduce suicide rates.

Prevalence of psychological distress, depression and suicidal ideation in an indigenous population in Panamá

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of serious psychological distress (SPD), depression, and suicidal ideation in an adult Indigenous population in Panamá.

METHODS

Data were collected from 211 Kuna adults using a paper-based survey. Depression and suicidal ideation were measured using the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), and SPD was measured using the Kessler-6. Univariate analyses were used to describe demographic variables, followed by chi² tests to compare differences in demographic variables for each of the mental health outcomes (depression, serious psychological distress, suicidal ideation). A regression model, adjusted for all demographic variables, was then run for each mental health outcome to understand independent correlates.

RESULTS

Within the sample surveyed, 6.2% (95% CI 3.4-10.4) reported serious psychological distress, 32.0% (95% CI 25.7-38.9) reported depression, and 22.9% (95% CI 17.4-29.1) reported suicidal ideation. Significant demographic differences existed with 14% of individuals between the age of 60-90 and 17% of individuals with no education reporting SPD. Women were nearly 5 times more likely to report depression than men (OR 4.90, 95% CI 1.27-19.00) and those with higher incomes were less likely to report depression (OR 0.32, 95% CI 0.13-0.78).

CONCLUSION

High levels of depression, SPD, and suicidal ideation were present in an Indigenous Kuna community in Panamá. Women and individuals with low income were more likely to report depression, and SPD was more common in older individuals and those with low levels of education. Suicidal ideation was high across all demographic factors, suggesting that a community-wide program to address suicide may be warranted.

Hidden Suicides of the Indigenous People of the Brazilian Amazon: Gender, Alcohol and Familial Clustering

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the coverage, characteristics and the risk of suicide in the indigenous people of Tabatinga in the Brazilian Amazon.

METHODS

An active surveillance strategy for suicide cases was used: records of the Ministry of Health, the Municipal Health Secretariat, the Special Indigenous Health District of the Upper River Solimões (Distrito Sanitario Especial Indígena Alto Río Solimões), the Military Hospital of Tabatinga, the National Indian Foundation (Fundación Nacional del Indio) and the civil registry offices were examined from 2007 to 2011 for individuals over 9 years of age. Adjusted rates were estimated using the direct method and according to age. A descriptive analysis was performed and the hypothesis tests were considered significant if p-values were <0.05.

RESULTS

The coverage of indigenous suicide was 82.8%, since 11 (17.2%) were classified as hidden suicides. For men between 15 and 29 years of age, and for women aged from 12 to 20 years, the probability of suicide was around 70.0%. In 17.2% of the sample there was a record of alcohol consumption before death and relationship between victims. The corrected adjusted mortality rate was 111.7/100,000 (95% CI, 84.6-148.6).

CONCLUSIONS

The risk of suicide in the indigenous people of the Tabatinga is very high. Coping strategies should consider the complex relationship between suicide and alcohol consumption, gender differences and the existence of vulnerable groups, such as young people, especially those with close relatives who have committed suicide.

[Epidemiology of suicide among adolescents and young adults in EcuadorEpidemiologia do suicídio em adolescentes e jovens no Equador]

Objective

To collect information - and provide it to decision-makers in health programs in general and mental health programs in particular - on epidemiological patterns in suicide deaths among young adults and adolescents in Ecuador.

Methods

A cross-sectional ecological study was conducted using data obtained from records of deaths by suicide among young adults and adolescents in Ecuador from 2001 to 2014. For analysis, results were disaggregated by geographic region, sex, age, ethnic group and suicide method. Rates of death by suicide (per 100,000 population) and relative risks (RR) for suicide were estimated by sex and region.

Results

Between 2001 and 2014, 4,855 suicides were recorded among adolescents and young adults. The highest estimated risk was found among males aged 15 to 24 years and adolescents living in the Amazon region, followed by those living in the Andean region. Mestizos were the ethnic group with the greatest number of suicides, although 40% of young people who commit suicide in the Amazon region are indigenous. The most frequent method was by hanging, followed by pesticide poisoning.

Conclusions

Suicide among adolescents and young adults is an important public health problem in Ecuador. Since various psychological, social, and cultural influences come into play, there is wide variation among regions, age groups, and ethnic groups. Restricting access to pesticides and other chemical products, implementing universal prevention programs and programs in education centers in the areas with the highest rates, and targeting vulnerable populations for specific interventions could help reduce the suicide rate among young people in Ecuador.