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Abbasi Moud A, Abbasi Moud A. Flow and assembly of cellulose nanocrystals (CNC): A bottom-up perspective - A review. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 232:123391. [PMID: 36716841 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.123391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Revised: 01/17/2023] [Accepted: 01/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Cellulosic sources, such as lignocellulose-rich biomass, can be mechanically or acid degraded to produce inclusions called cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs). They have several uses in the sectors of biomedicine, photonics, and material engineering because of their biodegradability, renewability, sustainability, and mechanical qualities. The processing and design of CNC-based products are inextricably linked to the rheological behaviour of CNC suspension or in combination with other chemicals, such as surfactants or polymers; in this context, rheology offers a significant link between microstructure and macro scale flow behaviour that is intricately linked to material response in applications. The flow behaviour of CNC items must be properly specified in order to produce goods with value-added characteristics. In this review article, we provide new research on the shear rheology of CNC dispersion and CNC-based hydrogels in the linear and nonlinear regime, with storage modulus values reported to range from ~10-3 to 103 Pa. Applications in technology and material science are also covered simultaneously. We carefully examined the effects of charge density, aspect ratio, concentration, persistence length, alignment, liquid crystal formation, the cause of chirality in CNCs, interfacial behaviour and interfacial rheology, linear and nonlinear viscoelasticity of CNC suspension in bulk and at the interface using the currently available literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aref Abbasi Moud
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z3, Canada; Biomedical Engineering Department, AmirKabir University of Technology, P.O. Box 15875/4413, PC36+P45 District 6, Tehran, Tehran Province 1591634311, Iran.
| | - Aliyeh Abbasi Moud
- Biomedical Engineering Department, AmirKabir University of Technology, P.O. Box 15875/4413, PC36+P45 District 6, Tehran, Tehran Province 1591634311, Iran
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Reishofer D, Resel R, Sattelkow J, Fischer WJ, Niegelhell K, Mohan T, Kleinschek KS, Amenitsch H, Plank H, Tammelin T, Kontturi E, Spirk S. Humidity Response of Cellulose Thin Films. Biomacromolecules 2022; 23:1148-1157. [PMID: 35225593 PMCID: PMC8924868 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.1c01446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2021] [Revised: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Cellulose-water interactions are crucial to understand biological processes as well as to develop tailor made cellulose-based products. However, the main challenge to study these interactions is the diversity of natural cellulose fibers and alterations in their supramolecular structure. Here, we study the humidity response of different, well-defined, ultrathin cellulose films as a function of industrially relevant treatments using different techniques. As treatments, drying at elevated temperature, swelling, and swelling followed by drying at elevated temperatures were chosen. The cellulose films were prepared by spin coating a soluble cellulose derivative, trimethylsilyl cellulose, onto solid substrates followed by conversion to cellulose by HCl vapor. For the highest investigated humidity levels (97%), the layer thickness increased by ca. 40% corresponding to the incorporation of 3.6 molecules of water per anhydroglucose unit (AGU), independent of the cellulose source used. The aforementioned treatments affected this ratio significantly with drying being the most notable procedure (2.0 and 2.6 molecules per AGU). The alterations were investigated in real time with X-ray reflectivity and quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation, equipped with a humidity module to obtain information about changes in the thickness, roughness, and electron density of the films and qualitatively confirmed using grazing incidence small angle X-ray scattering measurements using synchrotron irradiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Reishofer
- Institute
of Bioproducts and Paper Technology, Graz
University of Technology, Inffeldgasse 23, Graz 8010, Austria
| | - Roland Resel
- Institute
for Solid State Physics, Graz University
of Technology, Petersgasse 16, Graz 8010, Austria
| | - Jürgen Sattelkow
- Institute
for Electron Microscopy and Nanoanalysis, Graz University of Technology, Steyrergasse 17, Graz 8010, Austria
| | - Wolfgang J. Fischer
- Institute
of Bioproducts and Paper Technology, Graz
University of Technology, Inffeldgasse 23, Graz 8010, Austria
| | - Katrin Niegelhell
- Institute
of Bioproducts and Paper Technology, Graz
University of Technology, Inffeldgasse 23, Graz 8010, Austria
| | - Tamilselvan Mohan
- Institute
of Chemistry and Technology of Biobased Systems, Graz University of Technology, Stremayrgasse 9, Graz 8010, Austria
| | - Karin Stana Kleinschek
- Institute
of Chemistry and Technology of Biobased Systems, Graz University of Technology, Stremayrgasse 9, Graz 8010, Austria
| | - Heinz Amenitsch
- Institute
for Inorganic Chemistry, Graz University
of Technology, Stremayrgasse 9, Graz 8010, Austria
| | - Harald Plank
- Institute
for Electron Microscopy and Nanoanalysis, Graz University of Technology, Steyrergasse 17, Graz 8010, Austria
| | - Tekla Tammelin
- High Performance
Fibre Products, VTT Technical Research Center
of Finland Ltd, Espoo FI-02044 VTT, Finland
| | - Eero Kontturi
- Department
of Bioproducts and Biosystems, School of Chemical Technology, Aalto University, Espoo 02150, Finland
| | - Stefan Spirk
- Institute
of Bioproducts and Paper Technology, Graz
University of Technology, Inffeldgasse 23, Graz 8010, Austria
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Michels-Brito PH, Malfatti-Gasperini A, Mayr L, Puentes-Martinez X, Tenório RP, Wagner DR, Knudsen KD, Araki K, Oliveira RG, Breu J, Cavalcanti LP, Fossum JO. Unmodified Clay Nanosheets at the Air-Water Interface. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2021; 37:160-170. [PMID: 33373239 PMCID: PMC8154875 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.0c02670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2020] [Revised: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Quasi-two-dimensional (2D) nanolayers, such as graphene oxide or clay layers, adhere to gas-liquid or liquid-liquid interfaces. Particularly, clays are of wide general interest in this context because of their extensive and crucial use as Pickering emulsion stabilizers, as well as for their ability to provide colloidosome capsules. So far, clays could only be localized at oil-water or air-saline-water interfaces in aggregated states, while our results now show that clay nanosheets without any modification can be located at air-deionized-water interfaces. The clay mineral used in the present work is synthetic fluorohectorite with a very high aspect ratio and superior quality in homogeneity and charge distribution compared to other clay minerals. This clay mineral is more suitable for achieving unmodified clay anchoring to fluid interfaces compared to other clay minerals used in previous works. In this context, we studied clay nanosheet organization at the air-water interface by combining different experimental methods: Langmuir-Blodgett trough studies, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) studies of film deposits, grazing-incidence X-ray off-specular scattering (GIXOS), and Brewster angle microscopy (BAM). Clay films formed at the air-water interface could be transferred to solid substrates by the Langmuir-Schaefer method. The BAM results indicate a dynamic equilibrium between clay sheets on the interface and in the subphase. Because of this dynamic equilibrium, the Langmuir monolayer surface pressure does not change significantly when pure clay sheets are spread on the liquid surface. However, also, GIXOS results confirm that there are clay nanosheets at the air-water interface. In addition, we find that clay sheets modified by a branched polymer are much more likely to be confined to the interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulo H. Michels-Brito
- Department
of Physics, Norwegian University of Science
and Technology, NTNU, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Antonio Malfatti-Gasperini
- Brazilian
Synchrotron Light Laboratory, LNLS, Brazilian
Center for Research in Energy and Materials, CNPEM, Campinas 13083-970, Brazil
| | - Lina Mayr
- Bavarian
Polymer Institute and Department of Chemistry, University of Bayreuth, 95440 Bayreuth, Germany
| | | | - Rômulo P. Tenório
- Northeast
Regional Center of Nuclear Sciences, Recife 50740-545,Brazil
| | - Daniel R. Wagner
- Bavarian
Polymer Institute and Department of Chemistry, University of Bayreuth, 95440 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Kenneth D. Knudsen
- Department
of Physics, Norwegian University of Science
and Technology, NTNU, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
- Institute
for Energy Technology, IFE, Kjeller 2027, Norway
| | - Koiti Araki
- Department
of Fundamental Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, USP, São Paulo 05513-970, Brazil
| | - Rafael G. Oliveira
- Centro
de Investigaciones en Química Biológica de Córdoba
(CIQUIBIC)-Departamento de Química Biológica Dr. Ranwel
Caputto, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba X5000HUA, Argentina
| | - Josef Breu
- Bavarian
Polymer Institute and Department of Chemistry, University of Bayreuth, 95440 Bayreuth, Germany
| | | | - Jon Otto Fossum
- Department
of Physics, Norwegian University of Science
and Technology, NTNU, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
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Bodik M, Jergel M, Majkova E, Siffalovic P. Langmuir films of low-dimensional nanomaterials. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2020; 283:102239. [PMID: 32854017 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2020.102239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2020] [Revised: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 08/11/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
A large number of low-dimensional nanomaterials having different shapes and being dispersible in solvents open a fundamental question if there is a universal deposition technique for the monolayer formation. A monolayer formation of various nanomaterials at the air-water interface, also known as a Langmuir film, is a well-established technique even for the large group of the recently developed low-dimensional nanomaterials. In this review, we cover the monolayer formation of the zero-dimensional, one-dimensional and two-dimensional nanomaterials. Thanks to the formation of a Langmuir layer at the thermodynamic equilibrium, by using a suitable nanomaterial dispersion and subphase, the monolayers can be formed from all kinds of materials, ranging from the graphene oxide to the semiconducting quantum dots. In this review, we will discuss the basic requirements for the successful formation of monolayers and summarize the recent scientific advances in the field of Langmuir films.
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Niinivaara E, Cranston ED. Bottom-up assembly of nanocellulose structures. Carbohydr Polym 2020; 247:116664. [PMID: 32829792 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.116664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2020] [Revised: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 06/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Nanocelluloses, both cellulose nanofibrils and cellulose nanocrystals, are gaining research traction due to their viability as key components in commercial applications and industrial processes. Significant efforts have been made to understand both the potential of assembling nanocelluloses, and the limits and prospectives of the resulting structures. This Review focuses on bottom-up techniques used to prepare nanocellulose-only structures, and details the intermolecular and surface forces driving their assembly. Additionally, the interactions that contribute to their structural integrity are discussed along with alternate pathways and suggestions for improved properties. Six categories of nanocellulose structures are presented: (1) powders, beads, and droplets; (2) capsules; (3) continuous fibres; (4) films; (5) hydrogels; and (6) aerogels and dried foams. Although research on nanocellulose assembly often focuses on fundamental science, this Review also provides insight on the potential utilization of such structures in a wide array of applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elina Niinivaara
- Department of Wood Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada; Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16300, FI-0076 Aalto, Espoo, Finland.
| | - Emily D Cranston
- Department of Wood Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada; Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada.
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Bertsch P, Fischer P. Adsorption and interfacial structure of nanocelluloses at fluid interfaces. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2020; 276:102089. [PMID: 31887576 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2019.102089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2019] [Revised: 12/17/2019] [Accepted: 12/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Nanocelluloses (NCs), more specifically cellulose nanocrystals and nanofibrils, are a green alternative for the stabilization of fluid interfaces. The adsorption of NCs at oil-water interfaces facilitates the formation of stable and biocompatible Pickering emulsions. In contrast, unmodified NCs are not able to stabilize foams. As a consequence, NCs are often hydrophobized by covalent modifications or adsorption of surfactants, allowing also the stabilization of foams or functional inverse, double, and stimuli-responsive emulsions. Although the interfacial stabilization by NCs is readily exploited, the driving force of adsorption and stabilization mechanisms remained long unclear. Here, we summarize the recent advances in the understanding of NC adsorption regarding kinetics, isotherms, and energetic aspects, as well as their interfacial structure, surface coverage, and contact angle. We thereby distinguish unmodified NCs, covalently modified NCs, and surfactant enhanced adsorption.
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Bertsch P, Diener M, Adamcik J, Scheuble N, Geue T, Mezzenga R, Fischer P. Adsorption and Interfacial Layer Structure of Unmodified Nanocrystalline Cellulose at Air/Water Interfaces. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2018; 34:15195-15202. [PMID: 30433788 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.8b03056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) is a promising biological nanoparticle for the stabilization of fluid interfaces. However, the adsorption and interfacial layer structure of NCC are poorly understood as it is currently unknown how to form NCC interfacial layers. Herein, we present parameters for the adsorption of unmodified NCC at the air-water (A/W) interface. Initial NCC adsorption is limited by diffusion, followed by monolayer saturation and decrease in surface tension at the time scale of hours. These results confirm the current hypothesis of a Pickering stabilization. NCC interfacial performance can be modulated by salt-induced charge screening, enhancing adsorption kinetics, surface load, and interfacial viscoelasticity. Adsorbed NCC layers were visualized by atomic force microscopy at planar Langmuir films and curved air bubbles, whereat NCC coverage was higher at curved interfaces. Structural analysis by neutron reflectometry revealed that NCC forms a discontinuous monolayer with crystallites oriented in the interfacial plane at a contact angle < 90°, favoring NCC desorption upon area compression. This provides the fundamental framework on the formation and structure of NCC layers at the A/W interface, paving the way for exploiting NCC interfacial stabilization for tailored colloidal materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pascal Bertsch
- Institute of Food Nutrition and Health , ETH Zurich , 8092 Zurich , Switzerland
| | - Michael Diener
- Institute of Food Nutrition and Health , ETH Zurich , 8092 Zurich , Switzerland
| | - Jozef Adamcik
- Institute of Food Nutrition and Health , ETH Zurich , 8092 Zurich , Switzerland
| | - Nathalie Scheuble
- Institute of Food Nutrition and Health , ETH Zurich , 8092 Zurich , Switzerland
| | - Thomas Geue
- Laboratory of Neutron Scattering and Imaging , Paul Scherrer Institut , 5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
| | - Raffaele Mezzenga
- Institute of Food Nutrition and Health , ETH Zurich , 8092 Zurich , Switzerland
| | - Peter Fischer
- Institute of Food Nutrition and Health , ETH Zurich , 8092 Zurich , Switzerland
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Schlemmer W, Zankel A, Niegelhell K, Hobisch M, Süssenbacher M, Zajki-Zechmeister K, Weissl M, Reishofer D, Plank H, Spirk S. Deposition of Cellulose-Based Thin Films on Flexible Substrates. MATERIALS 2018; 11:ma11122433. [PMID: 30513642 PMCID: PMC6316936 DOI: 10.3390/ma11122433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2018] [Revised: 11/22/2018] [Accepted: 11/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
This study investigates flexible (polyamide 6.6 PA-6.6, polyethylene terephthalate PET, Cu, Al, and Ni foils) and, for comparison, stiff substrates (silicon wafers and glass) differing in, for example, in surface free energy and surface roughness and their ability to host cellulose-based thin films. Trimethylsilyl cellulose (TMSC), a hydrophobic acid-labile cellulose derivative, was deposited on these substrates and subjected to spin coating. For all the synthetic polymer and metal substrates, rather homogenous films were obtained, where the thickness and the roughness of the films correlated with the substrate roughness and its surface free energy. A particular case was the TMSC layer on the copper foil, which exhibited superhydrophobicity caused by the microstructuring of the copper substrate. After the investigation of TMSC film formation, the conversion to cellulose using acidic vapors of HCl was attempted. While for the polymer foils, as well as for glass and silicon, rather homogenous and smooth cellulose films were obtained, for the metal foils, there is a competing reaction between the formation of metal chlorides and the generation of cellulose. We observed particles corresponding to the metal chlorides, while we could not detect any cellulose thin films after HCl treatment of the metal foils as proven by cross-section imaging using scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
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Affiliation(s)
- Werner Schlemmer
- Institute for Paper-, Pulp- and Fibre Technology, Graz University of Technology, Inffeldgasse 23, 8010 Graz, Austria.
| | - Armin Zankel
- Institute of Electron Microscopy and Nanoanalysis (FELMI), Steyrergasse 17, 8010 Graz, Austria.
| | - Katrin Niegelhell
- Institute for Paper-, Pulp- and Fibre Technology, Graz University of Technology, Inffeldgasse 23, 8010 Graz, Austria.
| | - Mathias Hobisch
- Institute for Paper-, Pulp- and Fibre Technology, Graz University of Technology, Inffeldgasse 23, 8010 Graz, Austria.
| | - Michael Süssenbacher
- Institute for Paper-, Pulp- and Fibre Technology, Graz University of Technology, Inffeldgasse 23, 8010 Graz, Austria.
| | | | - Michael Weissl
- Institute for Paper-, Pulp- and Fibre Technology, Graz University of Technology, Inffeldgasse 23, 8010 Graz, Austria.
| | - David Reishofer
- Institute for Paper-, Pulp- and Fibre Technology, Graz University of Technology, Inffeldgasse 23, 8010 Graz, Austria.
| | - Harald Plank
- Institute of Electron Microscopy and Nanoanalysis (FELMI), Steyrergasse 17, 8010 Graz, Austria.
| | - Stefan Spirk
- Institute for Paper-, Pulp- and Fibre Technology, Graz University of Technology, Inffeldgasse 23, 8010 Graz, Austria.
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