Recent advancements in the application of new monomers and membrane modification techniques for the fabrication of thin film composite membranes: A review

Reverse Osmosis Membrane Engineering: Multidirectional Analysis Using Bibliometric, Machine Learning, Data, and Text Mining Approaches

Membrane engineering is a complex field involving the development of the most suitable membrane process for specific purposes and dealing with the design and operation of membrane technologies. This study analyzed 1424 articles on reverse osmosis (RO) membrane engineering from the Scopus database to provide guidance for future studies. The results show that since the first article was published in 1964, the domain has gained popularity, especially since 2009. Thin-film composite (TFC) polymeric material has been the primary focus of RO membrane experts, with 550 articles published on this topic. The use of nanomaterials and polymers in membrane engineering is also high, with 821 articles. Common problems such as fouling, biofouling, and scaling have been the center of work dedication, with 324 articles published on these issues. Wang J. is the leader in the number of published articles (73), while Gao C. is the leader in other metrics. Journal of Membrane Science is the most preferred source for the publication of RO membrane engineering and related technologies. Author social networks analysis shows that there are five core clusters, and the dominant cluster have 4 researchers. The analysis of sentiment, subjectivity, and emotion indicates that abstracts are positively perceived, objectively written, and emotionally neutral.

pH-responsive membranes: Mechanisms, fabrications, and applications

Understanding the mechanisms of pH-responsiveness allows researchers to design and fabricate membranes with specific functionalities for various applications. The pH-responsive membranes (PRMs) are particular categories of membranes that have an amazing aptitude to change their properties such as permeability, selectivity and surface charge in response to changes in pH levels. This review provides a brief introduction to mechanisms of pH-responsiveness in polymers and categorizes the applied polymers and functional groups. After that, different techniques for fabricating pH-responsive membranes such as grafting, the blending of pH-responsive polymers/microgels/nanomaterials, novel polymers and graphene-layered PRMs are discussed. The application of PRMs in different processes such as filtration membranes, reverse osmosis, drug delivery, gas separation, pervaporation and self-cleaning/antifouling properties with perspective to the challenges and future progress are reviewed. Lastly, the development and limitations of PRM fabrications and applications are compared to provide inclusive information for the advancement of next-generation PRMs with improved separation and filtration performance.

Nano-enabled gas separation membranes: Advancing sustainability in the energy-environment Nexus

Gas separation membranes serve as crucial to numerous industrial processes, including gas purification, energy production, and environmental protection. Recent advancements in nanomaterials have drastically revolutionized the process of developing tailored gas separation membranes, providing unreachable levels of control over the performance and characteristics of the membrane. The incorporation of cutting-edge nanomaterials into the composition of traditional polymer-based membranes has provided novel opportunities. This review critically analyses recent advancements, exploring the diverse types of nanomaterials employed, their synthesis techniques, and their integration into membrane matrices. The impact of nanomaterial incorporation on separation efficiency, selectivity, and structural integrity is evaluated across various gas separation scenarios. Furthermore, the underlying mechanisms behind nanomaterial-enhanced gas transport are examined, shedding light on the intricate interactions between nanoscale components and gas molecules. The review also discusses potential drawbacks and considerations associated with nanomaterial utilization in membrane development, including scalability and long-term stability. This review article highlights nanomaterials' significant impact in revolutionizing the field of selective gas separation membranes, offering the potential for innovation and future directions in this ever-evolving sector.

Research on Reverse Osmosis (RO)/Nanofiltration (NF) Membranes Based on Thin Film Composite (TFC) Structures: Mechanism, Recent Progress and Application

The global shortage of clean water is a major problem, even in water-rich regions. To solve this problem, low-cost and energy-efficient water treatment methods are needed. Membrane separation technology (MST), as a separation method with low energy consumption, low cost, and good separation effect, has been widely used to deal with seawater desalination, resource recovery, industrial wastewater treatment, and other fields. With the continuous progress of scientific and technological innovation and the increasing demand for use, NF/RO membranes based on the TFC structure are constantly being upgraded. This paper presents the recent research progress of NF and RO membranes based on TFC structures and their applications in different fields, especially the formation mechanism and regulation of selective layer structures and the modification methods of selective layers. Our summary provides fundamental insights into the understanding of NF and RO membrane processes and hopefully triggers further thinking on the development of membrane filtration process optimization.

Dual modification of reverse osmosis membranes with NH2-MIL-125 and functionalised multiwalled carbon nanotubes for enhanced nanoplastic removal

The present study describes a novel double-modified strategy for developing high-performance thin-film composite reverse osmosis (TFC-RO) membranes by incorporating titanium-based metal organic frameworks (NH2-MIL-125) and functionalised multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) into the support layer and selective layer, respectively. Initially, the support layer was subjected to successive modifications using NH2-MIL-125 mixed with polysulfone (PSF) in dimethylformamide DMF solution to investigate their impact on the performance and properties of the support layer and resultant TFC-RO membranes. Results indicated that the new structure of the modified support layer had significant influences on the developed TFC-RO membranes. Notably, the pristine PSF support exhibited a large surface pore size, medium porosity, and strong hydrophobicity, resulting in a low-flux TFC-RO membrane. However, after modification with NH2-MIL-125, the optimal blend support demonstrated a small surface pore size, high porosity, and improved hydrophilicity, favouring the formation of a high performance TFC-RO membrane. The incorporation of functionalised MWCNTs nanochannels into the selective layer, using the optimal NH2-MIL-125-PSF blended support, resulted in a smoother and more hydrophilic TFC-RO membrane with enhanced negative charge to improve antifouling properties against negative foulants (i.e., nanoplastics (NPs) and bovine serum albumin (BSA)). The double-modified membrane (TFC-RO-DM) exhibited superior performance over the conventional PSF-TFC-RO membrane. Notably, the maximum water flux reached 39 L m-2.h-1 with 98.4% NaCl rejection. The membrane exhibited a high flux recovery rate of 92% following a 30-min physical cleaning process. Additionally, the TFC-RO-DM membrane displayed reduced fouling against NPs suggesting the great promise of this innovative double-modification approach for the advancement of high-performance TFC-RO membranes.

Harmonic amide bond density as a game-changer for deciphering the crosslinking puzzle of polyamide

It is particularly essential to analyze the complex crosslinked networks within polyamide membranes and their correlation with separation efficiency for the insightful tailoring of desalination membranes. However, using the degree of network crosslinking as a descriptor yields abnormal analytical outcomes and limited correlation with desalination performance due to imperfections in segmentation and calculation methods. Herein, we introduce a more rational parameter, denoted as harmonic amide bond density (HABD), to unravel the relationship between the crosslinked networks of polyamide membranes and their desalination performance. HABD quantifies the number of distinct amide bonds per unit mass of polyamide, based on a comprehensive segmentation of polyamide structure and consistent computational protocols derived from X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy data. Compared to its counterpart, HABD overcomes the limitations and offers a more accurate depiction of the crosslinked networks. Empirical data validate that HABD exhibits the expected correlation with the salt rejection and water permeance of reverse osmosis and nanofiltration polyamide membranes. Notably, HABD is applicable for analyzing complex crosslinked polyamide networks formed by highly functional monomers. By offering a powerful toolbox for systematic analysis of crosslinked polyamide networks, HABD facilitates the development of permselective membranes with enhanced performance in desalination applications.

Recent advances in surface tailoring of thin film forward osmosis membranes: A review

The recent advancements in fabricating forward osmosis (FO) membranes have shown promising results in desalination and water treatment. Different methods have been applied to improve FO performance, such as using mixed or new draw solutions, enhancing the recovery of draw solutions, membrane modification, and developing FO-hybrid systems. However, reliable methods to address the current issues, including reverse salt flux, fouling, and antibacterial activities, are still in progress. In recent decades, surface modification has been applied to different membrane processes, including FO membranes. Introducing nanochannels, bioparticles, new monomers, and hydrophilic-based materials to the surface layer of FO membranes has significantly impacted their performance and efficiency and resulted in better control over fouling and concentration polarization (CP) in these membranes. This review critically investigates the recent developments in FO membrane processes and fabrication techniques for FO surface-layer modification. In addition, this study focuses on the latest materials and structures used for the surface modification of FO membranes. Finally, the current challenges, gaps, and suggestions for future studies in this field have been discussed in detail.

An economical and simple method for preparing highly permeable and chlorine-resistant reverse osmosis membranes with potential commercial applications

The improvement in the overall efficiency of thin-film composite (TFC) reverse osmosis (RO) membranes is limited by their low permeability and sensitivity to degradation by chlorine. In the present study, polypiperazine (PIP), the commonly used amine monomer in preparing commercial TFC nanofiltration (NF) membranes, was used to regulate the m-phenylenediamine (MPD) based interfacial polymerization (IP) process. The results showed that addition of PIP optimized the micro-structure and surface properties of the polyamide (PA) layer. When the MPD and PIP mass ratio was 1 : 1, the TFCW-1:1 membrane exhibited 70% flux enhancement compared to pure MPD-based TFCW-1:0 membranes. Besides, the TFCW-1:1 membrane exhibited better chlorine-resistant performance since the NaCl rejection declined to just 3.8% while it was 11.3% for TFCW-1:0 membranes after immersion in 500 ppm NaClO solution for 48 h. Such improvement can be attributed to the increased number of unreacted amine groups and the thickness of the PA layer that PIP brought, which provided a sacrificial protective layer to consume the active chlorine, and thus maintain the integrity of the inner rejection layer. In all, the novelty and purpose of the present work is to find a more simple and scalable method to fabricate high-performance TFC RO membranes by using commonly, cheaply and frequently used materials.

Recent Advances in Membranes Used for Nanofiltration to Remove Heavy Metals from Wastewater: A Review

The presence of heavy metal ions in polluted wastewater represents a serious threat to human health, making proper disposal extremely important. The utilization of nanofiltration (NF) membranes has emerged as one of the most effective methods of heavy metal ion removal from wastewater due to their efficient operation, adaptable design, and affordability. NF membranes created from advanced materials are becoming increasingly popular due to their ability to depollute wastewater in a variety of circumstances. Tailoring the NF membrane's properties to efficiently remove heavy metal ions from wastewater, interfacial polymerization, and grafting techniques, along with the addition of nano-fillers, have proven to be the most effective modification methods. This paper presents a review of the modification processes and NF membrane performances for the removal of heavy metals from wastewater, as well as the application of these membranes for heavy metal ion wastewater treatment. Very high treatment efficiencies, such as 99.90%, have been achieved using membranes composed of polyvinyl amine (PVAM) and glutaraldehyde (GA) for Cr³⁺ removal from wastewater. However, nanofiltration membranes have certain drawbacks, such as fouling of the NF membrane. Repeated cleaning of the membrane influences its lifetime.

A review on pollutants remediation competence of nanocomposites on contaminated water

Clean freshwater has been required for drinking, sanitation, agricultural activities, and industry, as well as for the development and maintenance of the eco - systems on which all livelihoods rely. Water contamination is currently a significant concern for researchers all over the world; hence it is essential that somehow this issue is resolved as soon as possible. It is now recognised as one of the most important research areas in the world. Current wastewater treatment techniques degrade a wide range of wastewaters efficiently; however, such methods have some limitations. Recently, nanotechnology has emerged as a wonderful solution, and researchers are conducting research in this water remediation field with a variety of potential applications. The pollutants remediation capability of nanocomposites as adsorbents, photocatalysts, magnetic separation, and so on for contaminant removal from contaminated water has been examined in this study. This study has spotlighted the most significant nanocomposites invention reported to date for contaminated and effluent remediation, as well as a research gap as well as possible future perspectives.

Forward Osmosis Membrane: Review of Fabrication, Modification, Challenges and Potential

Forward osmosis (FO) is a low-energy treatment process driven by osmosis to induce the separation of water from dissolved solutes/foulants through the membrane in hydraulic pressure absence while retaining all of these materials on the other side. All these advantages make it an alternative process to reduce the disadvantages of traditional desalination processes. However, several critical fundamentals still require more attention for understanding them, most notably the synthesis of novel membranes that offer a support layer with high flux and an active layer with high water permeability and solute rejection from both solutions at the same time, and a novel draw solution which provides low solute flux, high water flux, and easy regeneration. This work reviews the fundamentals controlling the FO process performance such as the role of the active layer and substrate and advances in the modification of FO membranes utilizing nanomaterials. Then, other aspects that affect the performance of FO are further summarized, including types of draw solutions and the role of operating conditions. Finally, challenges associated with the FO process, such as concentration polarization (CP), membrane fouling, and reverse solute diffusion (RSD) were analyzed by defining their causes and how to mitigate them. Moreover, factors affecting the energy consumption of the FO system were discussed and compared with reverse osmosis (RO). This review will provide in-depth details about FO technology, the issues it faces, and potential solutions to those issues to help the scientific researcher facilitate a full understanding of FO technology.

Ion-Imprinted Polymeric Materials for Selective Adsorption of Heavy Metal Ions from Aqueous Solution

The introduction of selective recognition sites toward certain heavy metal ions (HMIs) is a great challenge, which has a major role when the separation of species with similar physicochemical features is considered. In this context, ion-imprinted polymers (IIPs) developed based on the principle of molecular imprinting methodology, have emerged as an innovative solution. Recent advances in IIPs have shown that they exhibit higher selectivity coefficients than non-imprinted ones, which could support a large range of environmental applications starting from extraction and monitoring of HMIs to their detection and quantification. This review will emphasize the application of IIPs for selective removal of transition metal ions (including HMIs, precious metal ions, radionuclides, and rare earth metal ions) from aqueous solution by critically analyzing the most relevant literature studies from the last decade. In the first part of this review, the chemical components of IIPs, the main ion-imprinting technologies as well as the characterization methods used to evaluate the binding properties are briefly presented. In the second part, synthesis parameters, adsorption performance, and a descriptive analysis of solid phase extraction of heavy metal ions by various IIPs are provided.

A review on polyester and polyester-amide thin film composite nanofiltration membranes: Synthesis, characteristics and applications

Nanofiltration (NF) membranes have been widely used in various fields including water treatment and other separation processes, while conventional thin film composite (TFC) membranes with polyamide (PA) selective layers suffer the problems of fouling and chlorine intolerance. Due to the abundant hydrophilic hydroxyl groups and ester bonds free from chlorine attack, the TFC membranes composed of polyester (PE) or polyester-amide (PEA) selective layers have been proven to possess enhanced anti-fouling properties and superior chlorine resistance. In this review, the research progress of PE and PEA nanofiltration membranes is systematically summarized according to the variety of hydroxyl-containing monomers for membrane fabrication by the interfacial polymerization (IP) reaction. The synthesis strategies as well as the mechanisms for tailoring properties and performance of PE and PEA membranes are analyzed, and the membrane application advantages are demonstrated. Moreover, current challenges and future perspectives of the development of PE and PEA nanofiltration membranes are proposed. This review can offer guidance for designing high-performance PE and PEA membranes, thereby further promoting the efficacy of nanofiltration.

Modification of Liquid Separation Membranes Using Multidimensional Nanomaterials: Revealing the Roles of Dimension Based on Classical Titanium Dioxide

Membrane technology has become increasingly popular and important for separation processes in industries, as well as for desalination and wastewater treatment. Over the last decade, the merger of nanotechnology and membrane technology in the development of nanocomposite membranes has emerged as a rapidly expanding research area. The key motivation driving the development of nanocomposite membranes is the pursuit of high-performance liquid separation membranes that can address the bottlenecks of conventionally used polymeric membranes. Nanostructured materials in the form of zero to three-dimensions exhibit unique dimension-dependent morphology and topology that have triggered considerable attention in various fields. While the surface hydrophilicity, antibacterial, and photocatalytic properties of TiO2 are particularly attractive for liquid separation membranes, the geometry-dependent properties of the nanocomposite membrane can be further fine-tuned by selecting the nanostructures with the right dimension. This review aims to provide an overview and comments on the state-of-the-art modifications of liquid separation membrane using TiO2 as a classical example of multidimensional nanomaterials. The performances of TiO2-incorporated nanocomposite membranes are discussed with attention placed on the special features rendered by their structures and dimensions. The innovations and breakthroughs made in the synthesis and modifications of structure-controlled TiO2 and its composites have enabled fascinating and advantageous properties for the development of high-performance nanocomposite membranes for liquid separation.

Ferrocene-Based Terpolyamides and Their PDMS-Containing Block Copolymers: Synthesis and Physical Properties

Aromatic polyamides are well-known as high-performance materials due to their outstanding properties making them useful in a wide range of applications. However, their limited solubility in common organic solvents restricts their processability and becomes a hurdle in their applicability. This study is focused on the synthesis of processable ferrocene-based terpolyamides and their polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)-containing block copolymers, using low-temperature solution polycondensation methodology. All the synthesized materials were structurally characterized using FTIR and ¹H NMR spectroscopic techniques. The ferrocene-based terpolymers and block copolymers were soluble in common organic solvents, while the organic analogs were found only soluble in sulfuric acid. WXRD analysis showed the amorphous nature of the materials, while the SEM analysis exposed the modified surface of the ferrocene-based block copolymers. The structure-property relationship of the materials was further elucidated by their water absorption and thermal behavior. These materials showed low to no water absorption along with their high limiting oxygen index (LOI) values depicting their good flame-retardant behavior. DFT studies also supported the role of various monomers in the polycondensation reaction where the electron pair donation from HOMO of diamine monomer to the LUMO of acyl chloride was predicted, along with the calculation of various other parameters of the representative terpolymers and block copolymers.

Impact of Membrane Modification and Surface Immobilization Techniques on the Hemocompatibility of Hemodialysis Membranes: A Critical Review

Despite significant research efforts, hemodialysis patients have poor survival rates and low quality of life. Ultrafiltration (UF) membranes are the core of hemodialysis treatment, acting as a barrier for metabolic waste removal and supplying vital nutrients. So, developing a durable and suitable membrane that may be employed for therapeutic purposes is crucial. Surface modificationis a useful solution to boostmembrane characteristics like roughness, charge neutrality, wettability, hemocompatibility, and functionality, which are important in dialysis efficiency. The modification techniques can be classified as follows: (i) physical modification techniques (thermal treatment, polishing and grinding, blending, and coating), (ii) chemical modification (chemical methods, ozone treatment, ultraviolet-induced grafting, plasma treatment, high energy radiation, and enzymatic treatment); and (iii) combination methods (physicochemical). Despite the fact that each strategy has its own set of benefits and drawbacks, all of these methods yielded noteworthy outcomes, even if quantifying the enhanced performance is difficult. A hemodialysis membrane with outstanding hydrophilicity and hemocompatibility can be achieved by employing the right surface modification and immobilization technique. Modified membranes pave the way for more advancement in hemodialysis membrane hemocompatibility. Therefore, this critical review focused on the impact of the modification method used on the hemocompatibility of dialysis membranes while covering some possible modifications and basic research beyond clinical applications.

Improved Forward Osmosis Performance of Thin Film Composite Membranes with Graphene Quantum Dots Derived from Eucalyptus Tree Leaves

The major challenges in forward osmosis (FO) are low water flux, high specific reverse solute flux (SRSF), and membrane fouling. The present work addresses these problems by the incorporation of graphene quantum dots (GQDs) in the polyamide (PA) layer of thin-film composite (TFC) membranes, as well as by using an innovative polyethersulfone nanofiber support for the TFC membrane. The GQDs were prepared from eucalyptus leaves using a facile hydrothermal method that requires only deionized water, without the need for any organic solvents or reducing agents. The nanofiber support of the TFC membranes was prepared using solution blow spinning (SBS). The polyamide layer with GQDs was deposited on top of the nanofiber support through interfacial polymerization. This is the first study that reports the fouling resistance of the SBS-nanofiber-supported TFC membranes. The effect of various GQD loadings on the TFC FO membrane performance, its long-term FO testing, cleaning efficiency, and organic fouling resistance were analyzed. It was noted that the FO separation performance of the TFC membranes was improved with the incorporation of 0.05 wt.% GQDs. This study confirmed that the newly developed thin-film nanocomposite membranes demonstrated increased water flux and salt rejection, reduced SRSF, and good antifouling performance in the FO process.

Removal of antibiotics from wastewaters by membrane technology: Limitations, successes, and future improvements

Antibiotics and related pharmaceuticals are applied to enhance public health and life quality. A major environmental concern is wastewaters from pharmaceutical industries, which contain significant amounts of antibiotics. Pharmaceutical industries apply conventional processes (biological, filtration, coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation) for wastewater treatment, but these approaches cannot remove antibiotics completely. Moreover, unmetabolized antibiotics released by humans and animals are dangerous for municipal and effluent wastewater. Besides, antibiotic resistance is another challenge in treatment of wastewater for superbugs. This comprehensive study summarizes different techniques for antibiotic removal with an emphasis on membrane technology in individual and hybrid systems such as chemical, physical, biological, and conditional-based strategies. A combination of membrane processes with advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), adsorption, and biological treatments can be the right solution for perfect removal. Furthermore, this review briefly compares different procedures for antibiotic removal, which can be helpful for further studies with their advantages and drawbacks.

Fabrication of a Novel (PVDF/MWCNT/Polypyrrole) Antifouling High Flux Ultrafiltration Membrane for Crude Oil Wastewater Treatment

The present work deals with the fabrication of novel poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF)/Multi-wall Carbon Nanotubes (MWCNT)/Polypyrrole (PPy) ultrafiltration membrane by phase inversion technique for the removal of crude oil from refinery wastewater. In situ polymerization of pyrrole with different concentrations of MWCNT ranging from 0.025 wt.% to 0.3 wt.% in PVDF prepared solutions. Measurement of permeability, porosity, contact angle, tensile strength, zeta potential, rejection studies and morphological characterization by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were conducted. The results showed that membrane with (0.05% MWCNT) concentration had the highest permeability flux (850 LMH/bar), about 17 folds improvement of permeability compared to pristine PVDF membrane. Moreover, membrane rejection of crude oil reached about 99.9%. The excellent performance of this nanocomposite membrane suggests that novel PVDF modification with polypyrrole had a considerable effect on permeability with high potential for use in the treatment of oily wastewater in the refinery industry.

Autopsy of Used Reverse Osmosis Membranes from the Largest Seawater Desalination Plant in Oman

The Barka desalination plant, commissioned in 2018, is the largest desalination plant in Oman. It has a capacity of 281 MLD with a reverse osmosis (RO) first-pass recovery rate of 46%. As part of the standard operator practice, a membrane autopsy was conducted to determine the cause of reductions in membrane performance. This study investigated fouled membranes (model No. SW30HRLE-440) from two different locations in the membrane rack. Various analytical methods were used to conduct the membrane autopsy. Field-emission scanning electron microscopy/energy-dispersive X-ray (FESEM/EDS) analyses of membrane samples showed major components of inorganic foulants. Moreover, black and salt-like crystals deposited on the membrane surface revealed significant carbon (C) components and oxygen (O), with a small amount of magnesium (Mg), chloride (Cl), sodium (Na), aluminium (Al), and calcium (Ca), respectively. A Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis revealed the presence of long-chain hydrocarbons, carboxylic acids/esters, carbohydrates/polysaccharides, and inorganic foulants. Thermogravimetric analyses (TGA) of the membranes showed a high initial weight loss due to organic and inorganic fouling. X-ray photoelectron (XPS) analyses further confirmed the presence of inorganic and organic foulants on the membrane surfaces. Bacteria identification results showed the presence of Bacillus cereus and Bacillus marisflavi. This paper offers a detailed analysis of the foulants present on the reverse osmosis membrane surface and sub-surface before and after a cleaning process.

Applying Transition-State Theory to Explore Transport and Selectivity in Salt-Rejecting Membranes: A Critical Review

Membrane technologies using reverse osmosis (RO) and nanofiltration (NF) have been widely implemented in water purification and desalination processes. Separation between species at the molecular level is achievable in RO and NF membranes due to a complex and poorly understood combination of transport mechanisms that have attracted the attention of researchers within and beyond the membrane community for many years. Minimizing existing knowledge gaps in transport through these membranes can improve the sustainability of current water-treatment processes and expand the use of RO and NF membranes to other applications that require high selectivity between species. Since its establishment in 1949, and with growing popularity in recent years, Eyring's transition-state theory (TST) for transmembrane permeation has been applied in numerous studies to mechanistically explore molecular transport in membranes including RO and NF. In this review, we critically assess TST applied to transmembrane permeation in salt-rejecting membranes, focusing on mechanistic insights into transport under confinement that can be gained from this framework and the key limitations associated with the method. We first demonstrate and discuss the limited ability of the commonly used solution-diffusion model to mechanistically explain transport and selectivity trends observed in RO and NF membranes. Next, we review important milestones in the development of TST, introduce its underlying principles and equations, and establish the connection to transmembrane permeation with a focus on molecular-level enthalpic and entropic barriers that govern water and solute transport under confinement. We then critically review the application of TST to explore transport in RO and NF membranes, analyzing trends in measured enthalpic and entropic barriers and synthesizing new data to highlight important phenomena associated with the temperature-dependent measurement of the activation parameters. We also discuss major limitations of the experimental application of TST and propose specific solutions to minimize the uncertainties surrounding the current approach. We conclude with identifying future research needs to enhance the implementation and maximize the benefit of TST application to transmembrane permeation.