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Felippe ISA, Río RD, Schultz H, Machado BH, Paton JFR. Commonalities and differences in carotid body dysfunction in hypertension and heart failure. J Physiol 2023; 601:5527-5551. [PMID: 37747109 PMCID: PMC10873039 DOI: 10.1113/jp284114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Carotid body pathophysiology is associated with many cardiovascular-respiratory-metabolic diseases. This pathophysiology reflects both hyper-sensitivity and hyper-tonicity. From both animal models and human patients, evidence indicates that amelioration of this pathophysiological signalling improves disease states such as a lowering of blood pressure in hypertension, a reduction of breathing disturbances with improved cardiac function in heart failure (HF) and a re-balancing of autonomic activity with lowered sympathetic discharge. Given this, we have reviewed the mechanisms of carotid body hyper-sensitivity and hyper-tonicity across disease models asking whether there is uniqueness related to specific disease states. Our analysis indicates some commonalities and some potential differences, although not all mechanisms have been fully explored across all disease models. One potential commonality is that of hypoperfusion of the carotid body across hypertension and HF, where the excessive sympathetic drive may reduce blood flow in both models and, in addition, lowered cardiac output in HF may potentiate the hypoperfusion state of the carotid body. Other mechanisms are explored that focus on neurotransmitter and signalling pathways intrinsic to the carotid body (e.g. ATP, carbon monoxide) as well as extrinsic molecules carried in the blood (e.g. leptin); there are also transcription factors found in the carotid body endothelium that modulate its activity (Krüppel-like factor 2). The evidence to date fully supports that a better understanding of the mechanisms of carotid body pathophysiology is a fruitful strategy for informing potential new treatment strategies for many cardiovascular, respiratory and metabolic diseases, and this is highly relevant clinically.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor S. A. Felippe
- Manaaki Manawa – The Centre for Heart Research, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Health & Medical Sciences, University of Auckland, Grafton, Auckland, 1023, New Zealand
| | - Rodrigo Del Río
- Department of Physiology, Laboratory of Cardiorespiratory Control, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- Centro de Excelencia en Biomedicina de Magallanes (CEBIMA), Universidad de Magallanes, Punta Arenas, Chile
- Mechanisms of Myelin Formation and Repair Laboratory, Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- Centro de Envejecimiento y Regeneración (CARE), Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Harold Schultz
- Department of Cellular and Integrative Physiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska, USA
| | - Benedito H. Machado
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Julian F. R. Paton
- Manaaki Manawa – The Centre for Heart Research, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Health & Medical Sciences, University of Auckland, Grafton, Auckland, 1023, New Zealand
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2
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Holmes AP, Swiderska A, Nathanael D, Aldossary HS, Ray CJ, Coney AM, Kumar P. Are Multiple Mitochondrial Related Signalling Pathways Involved in Carotid Body Oxygen Sensing? Front Physiol 2022; 13:908617. [PMID: 35711317 PMCID: PMC9194093 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.908617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
It is generally acknowledged that the carotid body (CB) type I cell mitochondria are unique, being inhibited by relatively small falls in PaO2 well above those known to inhibit electron transport in other cell types. This feature is suggested to allow for the CB to function as an acute O2 sensor, being stimulated and activating systemic protective reflexes before the metabolism of other cells becomes compromised. What is less clear is precisely how a fall in mitochondrial activity links to type I cell depolarisation, a process that is required for initiation of the chemotransduction cascade and post-synaptic action potential generation. Multiple mitochondrial/metabolic signalling mechanisms have been proposed including local generation of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mitoROS), a change in mitochondrial/cellular redox status, a fall in MgATP and an increase in lactate. Although each mechanism is based on compelling experimental evidence, they are all not without question. The current review aims to explore the importance of each of these signalling pathways in mediating the overall CB response to hypoxia. We suggest that there is unlikely to be a single mechanism, but instead multiple mitochondrial related signalling pathways are recruited at different PaO2s during hypoxia. Furthermore, it still remains to be determined if mitochondrial signalling acts independently or in partnership with extra-mitochondrial O2-sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew P. Holmes
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Clinical Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Agnieszka Swiderska
- Unit of Cardiac Physiology, Division of Cardiovascular Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Demitris Nathanael
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Clinical Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Hayyaf S. Aldossary
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Clinical Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
- College of Medicine, Basic Medical Sciences, King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Clare J. Ray
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Clinical Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew M. Coney
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Clinical Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Prem Kumar
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Clinical Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
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3
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Olson KR. A Case for Hydrogen Sulfide Metabolism as an Oxygen Sensing Mechanism. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:antiox10111650. [PMID: 34829521 PMCID: PMC8615108 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10111650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Revised: 10/08/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability to detect oxygen availability is a ubiquitous attribute of aerobic organisms. However, the mechanism(s) that transduce oxygen concentration or availability into appropriate physiological responses is less clear and often controversial. This review will make the case for oxygen-dependent metabolism of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and polysulfides, collectively referred to as reactive sulfur species (RSS) as a physiologically relevant O2 sensing mechanism. This hypothesis is based on observations that H2S and RSS metabolism is inversely correlated with O2 tension, exogenous H2S elicits physiological responses identical to those produced by hypoxia, factors that affect H2S production or catabolism also affect tissue responses to hypoxia, and that RSS efficiently regulate downstream effectors of the hypoxic response in a manner consistent with a decrease in O2. H2S-mediated O2 sensing is then compared to the more generally accepted reactive oxygen species (ROS) mediated O2 sensing mechanism and a number of reasons are offered to resolve some of the confusion between the two.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth R Olson
- Department of Physiology, Indiana University School of Medicine-South Bend, South Bend, IN 46617, USA
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Mendiola PJ, Naik JS, Gonzalez Bosc LV, Gardiner AS, Birg A, Kanagy NL. Hydrogen Sulfide Actions in the Vasculature. Compr Physiol 2021; 11:2467-2488. [PMID: 34558672 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c200036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Hydrogen sulfide (H2 S) is a small, gaseous molecule with poor solubility in water that is generated by multiple pathways in many species including humans. It acts as a signaling molecule in many tissues with both beneficial and pathological effects. This article discusses its many actions in the vascular system and the growing evidence of its role to regulate vascular tone, angiogenesis, endothelial barrier function, redox, and inflammation. Alterations in some disease states are also discussed including potential roles in promoting tumor growth and contributions to the development of metabolic disease. © 2021 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 11:1-22, 2021.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jay S Naik
- University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA
| | | | - Amy S Gardiner
- University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA
| | - Aleksandr Birg
- University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA
| | - Nancy L Kanagy
- University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA
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Zhu J, Ligi S, Yang G. An evolutionary perspective on the interplays between hydrogen sulfide and oxygen in cellular functions. Arch Biochem Biophys 2021; 707:108920. [PMID: 34019852 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2021.108920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2021] [Revised: 05/09/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The physiological effects of the endogenously generated hydrogen sulfide (H2S) have been extensively studied in recent years. This review summarized the role of H2S in the origin of life and H2S metabolism in organisms from bacteria to vertebrates, examined the relationship between H2S and oxygen from an evolutionary perspective and emphasized the oxygen-dependent manner of H2S signaling in various physiological and pathological processes. H2S and oxygen are inextricably linked in various cellular functions. H2S is involved in aerobic respiration and stimulates oxidative phosphorylation and ATP production within the cell. Besides, H2S has protective effects on ischemia and reperfusion injury in several organs by acting as an oxygen sensor. Also, emerging evidence suggests the role of H2S is in an oxygen-dependent manner. All these findings indicate the subtle relationship between H2S and oxygen and further explain why H2S, a toxic molecule thriving in an anoxia environment several billion years ago, still affects homeostasis today despite the very low content in the body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiechun Zhu
- Department of Biology, Laurentian University, Sudbury, Canada; Cardiovascular and Metabolic Research Unit, Laurentian University, Sudbury, Canada
| | - Samantha Ligi
- Cardiovascular and Metabolic Research Unit, Laurentian University, Sudbury, Canada; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Laurentian University, Sudbury, Canada
| | - Guangdong Yang
- Department of Biology, Laurentian University, Sudbury, Canada; Cardiovascular and Metabolic Research Unit, Laurentian University, Sudbury, Canada; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Laurentian University, Sudbury, Canada.
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Mitochondrial Succinate Metabolism and Reactive Oxygen Species Are Important but Not Essential for Eliciting Carotid Body and Ventilatory Responses to Hypoxia in the Rat. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:antiox10060840. [PMID: 34070267 PMCID: PMC8225218 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10060840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Revised: 05/18/2021] [Accepted: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Reflex increases in breathing in response to acute hypoxia are dependent on activation of the carotid body (CB)—A specialised peripheral chemoreceptor. Central to CB O2-sensing is their unique mitochondria but the link between mitochondrial inhibition and cellular stimulation is unresolved. The objective of this study was to evaluate if ex vivo intact CB nerve activity and in vivo whole body ventilatory responses to hypoxia were modified by alterations in succinate metabolism and mitochondrial ROS (mitoROS) generation in the rat. Application of diethyl succinate (DESucc) caused concentration-dependent increases in chemoafferent frequency measuring approximately 10–30% of that induced by severe hypoxia. Inhibition of mitochondrial succinate metabolism by dimethyl malonate (DMM) evoked basal excitation and attenuated the rise in chemoafferent activity in hypoxia. However, approximately 50% of the response to hypoxia was preserved. MitoTEMPO (MitoT) and 10-(6′-plastoquinonyl) decyltriphenylphosphonium (SKQ1) (mitochondrial antioxidants) decreased chemoafferent activity in hypoxia by approximately 20–50%. In awake animals, MitoT and SKQ1 attenuated the rise in respiratory frequency during hypoxia, and SKQ1 also significantly blunted the overall hypoxic ventilatory response (HVR) by approximately 20%. Thus, whilst the data support a role for succinate and mitoROS in CB and whole body O2-sensing in the rat, they are not the sole mediators. Treatment of the CB with mitochondrial selective antioxidants may offer a new approach for treating CB-related cardiovascular–respiratory disorders.
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Badoer E. The Carotid Body a Common Denominator for Cardiovascular and Metabolic Dysfunction? Front Physiol 2020; 11:1069. [PMID: 32982794 PMCID: PMC7478291 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2020.01069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Accepted: 08/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The carotid body is a highly vascularized organ designed to monitor oxygen levels. Reducing oxygen levels in blood results in increased activity of the carotid body cells and reflex increases in sympathetic nerve activity. A key contributor to elevated sympathetic nerve activity in neurogenic forms of hypertension is enhanced peripheral chemoreceptor activity. Hypertension commonly occurs in metabolic disorders, like obesity. Such metabolic diseases are serious global health problems. Yet, the mechanisms contributing to increased sympathetic nerve activity and hypertension in obesity are not fully understood and a better understanding is urgently required. In this review, we examine the literature that suggests that overactivity of the carotid body may also contribute to metabolic disturbances. The purine ATP is an important chemical mediator influencing the activity of the carotid body and the role of purines in the overactivity of the carotid body is explored. We will conclude with the suggestion that tonic overactivity of the carotid body may be a common denominator that contributes to the hypertension and metabolic dysfunction seen in conditions in which metabolic disease exists such as obesity or insulin resistance induced by high caloric intake. Therapeutic treatment targeting the carotid bodies may be a viable treatment since translation to the clinic could be more easily performed than expected via repurposing antagonists of purinergic receptors currently in clinical practice, and the use of other minimally invasive techniques that reduce the overactivity of the carotid bodies which may be developed for such clinical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilio Badoer
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT) University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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Brognara F, Felippe ISA, Salgado HC, Paton JFR. Autonomic innervation of the carotid body as a determinant of its sensitivity: implications for cardiovascular physiology and pathology. Cardiovasc Res 2020; 117:1015-1032. [PMID: 32832979 DOI: 10.1093/cvr/cvaa250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2020] [Revised: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 08/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The motivation for this review comes from the emerging complexity of the autonomic innervation of the carotid body (CB) and its putative role in regulating chemoreceptor sensitivity. With the carotid bodies as a potential therapeutic target for numerous cardiorespiratory and metabolic diseases, an understanding of the neural control of its circulation is most relevant. Since nerve fibres track blood vessels and receive autonomic innervation, we initiate our review by describing the origins of arterial feed to the CB and its unique vascular architecture and blood flow. Arterial feed(s) vary amongst species and, unequivocally, the arterial blood supply is relatively high to this organ. The vasculature appears to form separate circuits inside the CB with one having arterial venous anastomoses. Both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves are present with postganglionic neurons located within the CB or close to it in the form of paraganglia. Their role in arterial vascular resistance control is described as is how CB blood flow relates to carotid sinus afferent activity. We discuss non-vascular targets of autonomic nerves, their possible role in controlling glomus cell activity, and how certain transmitters may relate to function. We propose that the autonomic nerves sub-serving the CB provide a rapid mechanism to tune the gain of peripheral chemoreflex sensitivity based on alterations in blood flow and oxygen delivery, and might provide future therapeutic targets. However, there remain a number of unknowns regarding these mechanisms that require further research that is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernanda Brognara
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, 85 Park Road, Grafton Auckland 1023, New Zealand.,Department of Physiology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Igor S A Felippe
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, 85 Park Road, Grafton Auckland 1023, New Zealand
| | - Helio C Salgado
- Department of Physiology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Julian F R Paton
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, 85 Park Road, Grafton Auckland 1023, New Zealand
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Cystathionine-γ-lyase (CSE) deficiency increases erythropoiesis and promotes mitochondrial electron transport via the upregulation of coproporphyrinogen III oxidase and consequent stimulation of heme biosynthesis. Biochem Pharmacol 2019; 169:113604. [PMID: 31421132 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2019.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is an endogenous gasotransmitter produced by mammalian cells. The current study investigated the potential role of H2S in the regulation of heme biosynthesis using mice deficient in cystathionine gamma-lyase (CSE), one of the three major mammalian H2S-producing enzymes. METHODS Wild-type and global CSE-/- mice, as well as mitochondria prepared from their liver were used. In vivo, arterial and venous blood gases were measured, and survival of the mice to severe global hypoxia was monitored. Ex vivo, expression of various heme biosynthetic enzymes including coproporphyrinogen oxidase (CPOX) was measured, and mitochondrial function was evaluated using Extracellular Flux Analysis. Urine samples were collected to measure the oxidized porphyrinogen intermediates. The in vivo/ex vivo studies were complemented with mitochondrial bioenergetic studies in hepatocytes in vitro. Moreover, the potential effect of H2S on the CPOX promoter was studied in cells expressing a CPOX promoter construct system. RESULTS The main findings are as follows: (1) CSE-/- mice exhibit elevated red blood cell counts and red blood cell mean corpuscular volumes compared to wild-type mice; (2) these changes are associated with elevated plasma and liver heme levels and (3) these alterations are likely due to an induction of CPOX (the sixth enzyme involved in heme biosynthesis) in CSE-/- mice. (4) Based on in vitro promoter data the promoter activation of CPOX is directly influenced by H2S, the product of CSE. With respect to the potential functional relevance of these findings, (5) the increased circulating red blood cell numbers do not correspond to any detectable alterations in blood gas parameters under resting conditions, (6) nor do they affect the hypoxia tolerance of the animals in an acute severe hypoxia model. However, there may be a functional interaction between the CSE system and the CPOX system in terms of mitochondrial bioenergetics: (7) CSE-/- hepatocytes and mitochondria isolated from them exhibit increased oxidative phosphorylation parameters, and (8) this increase is partially blunted after CPOX silencing. Although heme is essential for the biosynthesis of mitochondrial electron chain complexes, and CPOX is required for heme biosynthesis, (9) the observed functional mitochondrial alterations are not associated with detectable changes in mitochondrial electron transport chain protein expression. CONCLUSIONS The CSE system regulates the expression of CPOX and consequent heme synthesis. These effects in turn, do not influence global oxygen transport parameters, but may regulate mitochondrial electron transport.
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Prabhakar NR, Peng YJ, Nanduri J. Recent advances in understanding the physiology of hypoxic sensing by the carotid body. F1000Res 2018; 7. [PMID: 30631432 PMCID: PMC6284772 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.16247.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Hypoxia resulting from reduced oxygen (O
2) levels in the arterial blood is sensed by the carotid body (CB) and triggers reflex stimulation of breathing and blood pressure to maintain homeostasis. Studies in the past five years provided novel insights into the roles of heme oxygenase-2 (HO-2), a carbon monoxide (CO)-producing enzyme, and NADH dehydrogenase Fe-S protein 2, a subunit of the mitochondrial complex I, in hypoxic sensing by the CB. HO-2 is expressed in type I cells, the primary O2-sensing cells of the CB, and binds to O
2 with low affinity. O
2-dependent CO production from HO-2 mediates hypoxic response of the CB by regulating H
2S generation. Mice lacking NDUFS2 show that complex I-generated reactive oxygen species acting on K
+ channels confer type I cell response to hypoxia. Whether these signaling pathways operate synergistically or independently remains to be studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nanduri R Prabhakar
- Institute for Integrative Physiology and Center for Systems Biology of O2 Sensing, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA
| | - Ying-Jie Peng
- Institute for Integrative Physiology and Center for Systems Biology of O2 Sensing, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA
| | - Jayasri Nanduri
- Institute for Integrative Physiology and Center for Systems Biology of O2 Sensing, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA
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