A review of life cycle assessment method for building industry

Assessment of building materials in the construction sector: A case study using life cycle assessment approach to achieve the circular economy

The construction sector plays a significant role in contributing to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, necessitating effective and practical solutions. This study addresses the underutilization of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) in the construction sector and demonstrates its benefits as a decision-making tool for mitigating embodied carbon. The research focuses on a G+2 building in Dubai, UAE, conducting LCA during the construction phases to assess embodied carbon levels. Results indicate that the careful selection of construction materials and involvement of LCA at the early stages of construction resulted in a 26 % reduction in the building's embodied carbon. The study recognizes the limitations of LCA but emphasizes its value and recommends future research to enhance its coverage of sustainability aspects. The findings highlight the construction sector's potential to overcome anthropogenic challenges through green solutions. Policymakers' support is crucial for implementing strategies that reduce the construction industry's carbon footprint and embrace a circular economy. The study contributes to the literature by bridging the gap in understanding the application of LCA in construction decision-making. It emphasizes the importance of transitioning to sustainable practices and circularity in the construction sector. By using LCA as a tool, construction professionals can make informed choices to reduce embodied carbon. This study underscores the urgency for adopting greener practices in the construction sector, leading to a more sustainable and low-carbon future.

Review of Urban Building Types and Their Energy Use and Carbon Emissions in Life-Cycle Analyses from Low- and Middle-Income Countries

Urbanization, slum redevelopment, and population growth will lead to unprecedented levels of residential building construction in "low- and middle-income" (LMI) countries in the coming decades. However, less than 50% of previous residential building life-cycle assessment (LCA) reviews included LMI countries. Moreover, all reviews that included LMI countries only considered formal (cement-concrete) buildings, while more than 800 million people in these countries lived in informal settlements. We analyze LCA literature and define three building types based on durability: formal, semiformal, and informal. These exhaustively represent residential buildings in LMI countries. For each type, we define dominant archetypes from across the world, based on construction materials. To address the data deficiency and lack of transparency in LCA studies, we develop a reproducibility metric for building LCAs. We find that the countries with the most reproducible studies are India, Sri Lanka, Turkey, Mexico, and Brazil. Only 7 out of 54 African countries have reproducible studies focused on either the embodied or use phase. Maintenance, refurbishment, and end-of-life phases are included in hardly any studies in the LMI LCA literature. Lastly, we highlight the necessity for studying current, traditional buildings to provide a benchmark for future studies focusing on energy and material efficiency strategies.

Development of a Portland Cement-Based Material with Agave salmiana Leaves Bioaggregate

Depending on the morphology of the natural fibers, they can be used as reinforcement to improve flexural strength in cement-based composites or as aggregates to improve thermal conductivity properties. In this last aspect, hemp, coconut, flax, sunflower, and corn fibers have been used extensively, and further study is expected into different bioaggregates that allow diversifying of the raw materials. The objective of the research was to develop plant-based concretes with a matrix based on Portland cement and an aggregate of Agave salmiana (AS) leaves, obtained from the residues of the tequila industry that have no current purpose, as a total replacement for the calcareous aggregates commonly used in the manufacturing of mortars and whose extraction is associated with high levels of pollution, to improve their thermal properties and reduce the energy demand for air conditioning in homes. Characterization tests were carried out on the raw materials and the vegetal aggregate was processed to improve its compatibility with the cement paste through four different treatments: (a) freezing (T/C), (b) hornification (T/H), (c) sodium hydroxide (T/NaOH), and (d) solid paraffin (T/P). The effect of the treatments on the physical properties of the resulting composite was evaluated by studying the vegetal concrete under thermal conductivity, bulk density, and compressive strength tests with a volumetric ratio between the vegetal aggregate and the cement paste of 0.36 and a water/cement ratio of 0.35. The hornification treatment showed a 15.2% decrease in the water absorption capacity of the aggregate, resulting in a composite with a thermal conductivity of 0.49 W/mK and a compressive strength of 8.66 MPa, which allows its utilization as a construction material to produce prefabricated blocks.

Recycling Potential Comparison of Mass Timber Constructions and Concrete Buildings: A Case Study in China

The recycling potential (RP) indicates the ability of building materials to form a closed-loop material flow, that is, the material efficiency during its whole life cycle. Mass timber constructions and concrete buildings vary widely in RP, but the differences are difficult to calculate. This paper proposed a level-based scheme to compare the RP of mass timber and concrete buildings, and a BIM-Eco2soft-MS Excel workflow coupling Material Cycle Database and digital design tools were established to obtain information on building materials, resource consumption, and environmental impact for the RP calculation. Taking a residential building as an example, the difference in RP between mass timber and concrete at the material-level is firstly discussed. Then at the component-level, the RP of the wood structure component and concrete component is compared, and the optimization methods are proposed. Finally, the difference in RP between the mass timber building and reinforced concrete building at the building-level are illustrated. The results show that the RP of mass timber building is higher, and the disassembly ability is better. Within a 100-year service life, the RP of mass timber buildings is 73% and that of the reinforced concrete building is 34%. The total amount of material consumption and waste of the Variant CLT is 837,030 kg and 267,237 kg respectively, which is less than one-third of that of concrete buildings (3,458,488 kg; 958,145 kg). The Global Warming potential (GWP) of these two variants is −174.0 kgCO2/m2 and 221.0 kgCO2/m2 separately, indicating that the Variant CLT can realize negative carbon emissions and gain ecological benefits. A sensitivity analysis is conducted to explore the potential impacts of certain parameters on GWP and RP of buildings. The research can provide the reference for material selection, component design, and RP optimization of mass timber buildings. In addition, new ideas for assessing the potential of circularity as a design tool are proposed to support the transition towards a circular construction industry and to realize carbon neutrality.

Drawing a Path towards Circular Construction: An Approach to Engage Stakeholders

The activities conducted in the building and construction sector should be guided by circular economy principles, which will result in the implementation of greener practices fostering both the development of economy and protection of the environment. This work proposes and discusses an innovative approach based on a concerted strategy between stakeholders to accelerate the transition to a circular construction paradigm, which involves, as sustainable development, the definition of three dimensions to guide the process: (a) the assignment of key roles to the government and construction professionals; (b) the improvement of the industry to perform a proper management of construction and demolition waste; and (c) the development of sustainable practices at the construction site. In addition to the discussion about the different stakeholder partnerships that must exist, key ideas that should be adopted by industry to deliver recycled materials and products to the building and construction sector are proposed in this work. Moreover, measures to assist in the management of both the traditional and innovative materials and products incorporating recycled waste at the construction site are suggested targeting the implementation of more sustainable practices within this context. A broad use of the ideas proposed in this work in the building and construction sector may lead to encouraging outcomes in the next decade.

Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of a Historic and a Modern School Building, Located in the City of Naoussa, Greece

Life Cycle Assessment is often applied as a methodological approach for evaluating the environmental performance and impact of the building sector, including building stock. In the present study, two school buildings, located in the city of Naoussa, N. Greece were analyzed, including a historic and a modern one. The survey concerned on-site inspection and documentation of the structures, data collection and analysis, Life Cycle Impact assessment, as well as comparative evaluation of the results. The objective was to indicate the constructional and performance characteristics of the buildings, as well as to comparatively evaluate their environmental performance and impact. Since historic school buildings still function as educational units, these aspects are crucial and may determine their future operation and use. For LCA, the expected life span of the buildings was taken into account (60 years for the modern school and 140 years for the historic one), as well as all life cycle stages (product, construction, use, end of life, beyond building life). Various indicators were assessed, such as Global Warming Potential (GWP), Fossil Fuel Consumption, Total Primary Energy, Non-Renewable Primary Energy. From the correlation of the results, it was asserted that although the two buildings present similar operational characteristics and needs, they have different environmental performances and impacts, mainly attributed to their different service life and structural characteristics. Although the operational GWP value of the historic building is higher (due to the extended life span), the embodied one is significantly lower (due to the natural materials used for its construction). Other indicators, such as fossil fuel consumption are also higher in the case of the modern school building, indicating that its environmental footprint is more intense.

Barriers to BIM-Based Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment for Buildings: An Interpretive Structural Modelling Approach

With the emergence of Building Information Modelling (BIM) as central to construction design, planning, execution and maintenance, integration into the entire infrastructure sustainability process is imperative for achieving sustainable development. Despite its immense benefit of aiding compliance to sustainable construction, potential barriers continue to widen the gap in implementation. Therefore, this study adopts the “interpretive structural modelling approach” to advance a ranked structure of the interrelatedness of the barriers to integrating BIM in buildings sustainability assessment. The “Matrice d’Impacts croises-multipication applique a classement analysis (MICMAC)” was utilised to categorise the identified adoption barriers in the model. The identified barriers and relationship with themselves are valuable in discussing the challenges to BIM-based LCA and developing policies and design decisions to drive the process further. Further, it adds to the emerging discussion of BIM from the life cycle sustainability assessment perspective for infrastructure. The findings are critical for policy, stakeholders and extending the body of knowledge.

A Comparative Study on the Life Cycle Assessment of New Zealand Residential Buildings

In New Zealand, housing is typically low density, with light timber framing being the dominant form of construction with more than 90% of the market. From 2020, as a result of the global pandemic, there was a shortage of timber in New Zealand, resulting in increased popularity for light steel framing, the main alternative to timber for housing. At the same time, the New Zealand government is committed to sustainability practises through legislation and frameworks, such as the reduction of whole-of-life carbon emissions for the building industry. New Zealand recently announced reducing its net greenhouse gas emissions by 50% within 2030. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a technique for assessing the environmental aspects associated with a product over its life cycle. Despite the popularity of LCA in the construction industry of New Zealand, prior research results seem varied. There is no unified NZ context database to perform an LCA for buildings. Therefore, in this paper, a comprehensive study using LCA was conducted to quantify and compare the quantity of carbon emissions from two commonly designed houses in the Auckland region, one built from light timber and the other from light steel, both designed for a lifespan of 90 years. The cradle-to-cradle system boundary was used for the LCA. From the results of this study, it was found that the light steel house had 12.3% more carbon in total (including embodied and operational carbons) when compared to the light timber house, of which the manufacturing of two houses had a difference of 50.4% in terms of carbon emissions. However, when the end-of-life (EOL) analysis was included, it was found that the extra carbon could be offset due to the steel’s recyclability, reducing the amount of embodied carbon in the manufacturing process. Therefore, there was no significant difference in carbon emissions between the light steel and the light timber building, with the difference being only 12.3%.

Life Cycle Sustainability Assessments of an Innovative FRP Composite Footbridge

Sustainable construction and the design of low-carbon structures is a major concern for the UK construction industry. FRP composite materials are seen as a suitable alternative to traditional construction materials due to their high strength and light weight. Network Rail has developed a prototype for a new innovative footbridge made entirely from FRP with the aim of replacing the current steel design for footbridges. This study conducted a life cycle analysis of this novel composite footbridge design to quantify the cost and environmental benefits. An LCA and LCC analysis framework was used to analyse the environmental impacts and cost savings of the bridge throughout its lifespan from raw material extraction to its end of life. From the results of the LCA and LCC, the FRP footbridge sustainability was reviewed and compared to a standard steel footbridge. Due to the uncertainty of the fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) structure’s lifespan, multiple scenarios for longevity at the assets-use stage were studied. The study revealed that the FRP bridge offered substantial economic savings whilst presenting potentially worse environmental impacts, mainly caused by the impact of the production of FRP materials. However, our study also demonstrated the influences of uncertainties related to the glass-fibre-reinforced plastic (GFRP) material design life and end-of-life disposal on the whole life cycle analyses. The results show that if the FRP footbridge surpasses its original estimation for lifespan, the economic savings can be increased and the environmental impacts can be reduced substantially.

Quantifying the embodied carbon saving potential of recycling construction and demolition waste in the Greater Bay Area, China: Status quo and future scenarios

Comparing with the enduring efforts to reduce carbon emissions in design, construction, and operation stages of a construction project, less attention has been paid to emission abatement potential in the end-of-life stage, particularly by recycling waste generated by construction and demolition (C&D) activities. This research aims to cover this knowledge void by quantifying the embodied carbon saving potential of recycling C&D waste. It does so by adopting a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and choosing the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area (GBA) in South China for a case study. The carbon emission is treated as embodied in construction materials, by recycling which the equivalent amount of carbon generated from the virgin materials can be saved. It is estimated that the GBA produced 128.49 Mt. of C&D waste in 2018, which implies an embodied carbon saving potential of 92.26 Mt. carbon emissions. The research goes further to understand the future C&D waste generation and their corresponding embodied carbon saving potential. A first-of-its-kind dynamic approach is developed to simulate the future 42-year saving potential under four construction development scenarios. Depending on different construction growth rates, the embodied carbon saving potential in 2060 can be up to 894.80 Mt. and down to 166.34 Mt. This research can help achieve China's 2060 carbon neutral goal by focusing on a non-negligible sector in an economically important region. Methods proposed in this paper are also applicable to other regions worldwide, especially where C&D waste data is insufficient.

The role of lignin and lignin-based materials in sustainable construction - A comprehensive review

The construction industry in the 21st century faces numerous global challenges associated with growing concerns for the environment. Therefore, this review focuses on the role of lignin and its derivatives in sustainable construction. Lignin's properties are defined in terms of their structure/property relationships and how structural differences arising from lignin extraction methods influence its application within the construction sector. Lignin and lignin composites allow the partial replacement of petroleum products, making the final materials and the entire construction sector more sustainable. The latest technological developments associated with cement composites, rigid polyurethane foams, paints and coatings, phenolic or epoxy resins, and bitumen replacements are discussed in terms of key engineering parameters. The application of life cycle assessment in construction, which is important from the point of view of estimating the environmental impact of various solutions and materials, is also discussed.

A Textile Waste Fiber-Reinforced Cement Composite: Comparison between Short Random Fiber and Textile Reinforcement

Currently, millions of tons of textile waste from the garment and textile industries are generated worldwide each year. As a promising option in terms of sustainability, textile waste fibers could be used as internal reinforcement of cement-based composites by enhancing ductility and decreasing crack propagation. To this end, two extensive experimental programs were carried out, involving the use of either fractions of short random fibers at 6-10% by weight or nonwoven fabrics in 3-7 laminate layers in the textile waste-reinforcement of cement, and the mechanical and durability properties of the resulting composites were characterized. Flexural resistance in pre- and post-crack, toughness, and stiffness of the resulting composites were assessed in addition to unrestrained drying shrinkage testing. The results obtained from those programs were analyzed and compared to identify the optimal composite and potential applications. Based on the results of experimental analysis, the feasibility of using this textile waste composite as a potential construction material in nonstructural concrete structures such as facade cladding, raised floors, and pavements was confirmed. The optimal composite was proven to be the one reinforced with six layers of nonwoven fabric, with a flexural strength of 15.5 MPa and a toughness of 9.7 kJ/m2.

Prospective Life Cycle Assessment: Effect of Electricity Decarbonization in Building Sector

The building sector is responsible for 43% of France’s final energy consumption and is strongly associated with a high environmental impact due to its high consumption of energy and natural resources. These impacts are significant in isolated islands. Due to its geographical isolation and an area of 2512 km2, Reunion Island has a heavily carbon-based economy with a high import rate of raw materials for the building sector. This study aimed to investigate the effect of electricity mix decarbonization on residential house environmental impact. The methodology consists of three parts: (i) evaluating environmental impacts of Single-Family Houses (SFH) using life cyce assessment(LCA), (ii) defining SFH typologies using the K-means clustering algorithm, and (iii) implementing energy scenario in LCA of SFH to assess decarbonization effect. The environmental results were particularly sensitive in the operational phase, with a decrease of 83% between 2020 to 2040 of the global warming potential (GWP). The structural phase highlights the weight of imports in the building sector, as a decrease of only 1% is observed. This study clearly shows the necessary energy transition for Reunion Island. In the structural phase, the study recommends that stakeholders reduce imports and increase the share of recovered materials to achieve a substantial reduction in impacts.

Competitive Revenue Strategies in the Medical Consumables Industry: Evidence from Human Resources, Research and Development Expenses and Industry Life Cycle

This study attempted to explore the competitive advantage strategies of the medical consumables industry (MCI) from the perspectives of human resources, research and development (R&D) and the industry life cycle. As one of the essential branches of modern medical device industry, the MCI has developed rapidly in recent years as global demand for medical consumables has shown continual growth, but it also faces market uncertainty. This study took Taiwan's small/medium medical consumables enterprises (SMMCEs) as a sample, and used the translog revenue function to study the competitive advantage of the MCI through human resource and R&D investment strategies and the stage characteristics of the industry life cycle curve. The results showed that the various human resources and R&D expenses of the small/medium medical consumables industry (SMMCI) can interact with each other to influence total revenue and that the SMMCI needs more varied types of human resources to enhance its competitive advantage. The total revenue of the SMMCI decreased as education inputs rose, but it increased along with increases in the number of employee and R&D inputs. Observed from the life cycle curve of the SMMCI, total revenue increased rapidly during the startup and growth stages, increased slowly during the maturity stage, and decreased during the decline stage. Finally, we put forward competitive advantage strategies and management suggestions for medical consumables enterprises (MCEs). We are the first to document the life cycle curve and competitive advantage strategies of the MCI, thereby contributing to the related literature.

Environmental Overcost of Single Family Houses in Insular Context: A Comparative LCA Study of Reunion Island and France

The building and public works sector is, in France as in Europe, a major consumer of raw materials for both the manufacture of products and the construction of buildings and structures. This sector has a direct impact on the natural and built environment. This effect is even more pronounced in the case of isolated territories, such as islands. The latter have their own constraints (geographical location, production of the local grid mix) and particularities: very small territory, massive importation of goods in all fields, such as food, automobile, building, and others). In this study, we focus on the building branch of the construction industry, which covers housing (single-family houses and apartment blocks). The study is based on the analysis of about twenty single-family houses built in metropolitan France and Reunion Island. The construction standards for these two regions comply with European standards (CE) and French regulations. However, in the case of Reunion Island, a tropical island, it applies in particular to the Thermal, Acoustic, and Ventilation Regulations for New Buildings in Overseas Departments and Regions (RTAA DROM). The approach that is used for the environmental assessment of single-family homes is the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), from cradle to grave. The results initially showed that there is an additional environmental cost in the construction sector between France and Reunion Island. This is initially due to the choice of origin of materials and products, which can greatly contribute to the impacts of construction. Secondly, to the use of the countries’ electricity mix, which also contributes, in part, to the impact of the construction of these single-family homes during the assembly and transformation of the products. Finally, this additional cost also differs according to the transport used (sea, air, rail, road). For the Global Warming Potential (GWP) indicator, in our study we note that the additional environmental cost is 37% higher in Reunion Island. This figure explains the additional impact of the 218 kg-CO2eq/m2 of built-up area built for Reunion Island. This study is one of the first analyses demonstrating the additional environmental cost that exists between mainland France and overseas France. Thus, the results demonstrate the importance of creating a specialized and regionalized database for the case of remote islands. Thus, this database would allow for professionals to have a precise environmental assessment, not on a national but on a regional scale. This document also provides a framework and guideline for policy decision-making in the overseas islands.

Toward Energy Savings in Campus Buildings under a Life Cycle Thinking Approach

Recent studies have identified that buildings all over the world are great contributors to energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. The relationship between the building industry and environmental pollution is continuously discussed. The building industry includes many phases: extraction of raw materials, manufacturing, construction, use, and demolition. Each phase consumes a large amount of energy, and subsequent emissions are released. The life cycle energy assessment (LCEA) is a simplified version of the life cycle assessment (LCA) that focuses only on the evaluation of energy inputs for different phases of the life cycle. Operational energy is the energy required for day-to-day operation processes of buildings, such as heating, cooling and ventilation systems, lighting, as well as appliances. This use phase accounts for the largest portion of energy consumption of the life cycle of conventional buildings. In addition, energy performance certification of buildings is an obligation under current European legislation, which promotes efficient energy use, so it is necessary to ensure that the energy performance of the building is upgraded to meet minimum requirements. For this purpose, this work proposes the consideration of the energy impacts and material resources used in the operation phase of a building to calculate the contribution of these energy impacts as new variables for the energy performance certification. The application of this new approach to the evaluation of university buildings has been selected as a case study. From a methodological point of view, the approach relied on the energy consumption records obtained from energy and materials audit exercises with the aid of LCA databases. Taking into practice the proposed methodology, the primary energy impact and the related emissions were assessed to simplify the decision-making process for the energy certification of buildings. From the results obtained, it was concluded that the consumption of water and other consumable items (paper) are important from energy and environmental perspectives.

Integrating BIM-Based LCA and Building Sustainability Assessment

With the increasing concerns about building environmental impacts, building information modelling (BIM) has been used to perform different kinds of sustainability analysis. Among the most popular are the life cycle assessment (LCA) and building sustainability assessment (BSA). However, the integration of BIM-based LCA in BSA methods has not been adequately explored yet. This study addresses the relation between LCA and BSA within the BIM context for the Portuguese context. By performing an LCA for a Portuguese case study, a set of sustainability criteria from SBTool were simultaneous assessed during the process. The possibility of integrating BIM-based LCA into BSA methods can include more life cycle stages in the sustainability assessment and allow for normalising and producing more comparable results. BIM automates and connects different stages of the design process and provides information for multi-disciplinary data storage. However, there are still some constraints, such as different BSA/LCA databases and the necessity to manually introduce the embodied life cycle impacts of building materials. The scope of the BSA analysis can be expanded by integrating a complete LCA and be fostered by the support of BIM, effectively improving building sustainability according to local standards.

Life Cycle Assessment of Prefabricated Geopolymeric Façade Cladding Panels Made from Large Fractions of Recycled Construction and Demolition Waste

The construction and demolition sector is one of the biggest consumers of natural resources in the world and consequently, one of the biggest waste producers worldwide. The proper management of construction and demolition waste (CDW) can provide major benefits for the construction and recycling industry. However, the recycling rate of CDW is relatively low, as there is still a lack of confidence in the quality of recycled CDW materials. Therefore, new research projects are looking for innovative solutions within recycling of CDW in order to overcome uncertainties currently associated with the use of construction products made from recycled or re-used CDW. In this paper, a “cradle-to-cradle” life cycle assessment (LCA) study has been conducted to investigate the environmental performance of the prefabricated geopolymeric façade cladding panels made from large fractions of CDW. The LCA results indicate that the majority of the environmental burden arises within the manufacturing stage; however, the environmental burden can be reduced with simple optimisation of the manufacturing process. Furthermore, the environmental impact of the prefabricated geopolymeric façade cladding panels is generally lower than the environmental burden associated with the façade cladding panels made from virgin materials.

Decision Support Systems in Construction: A Bibliometric Analysis

In recent years, the use of decision support systems for selecting sustainable construction materials in the building and commercial construction projects has received a great deal of attention. This paper reports an in-depth and systematic bibliometric analysis of the literature using Decision Support Systems (DSSs) for its construction, based on the papers published during the period from 2000 to 2016. The data were collected from two major databases, Web of Science (WoS) and Scopus, which included 2185 and 3233 peer reviewed articles, respectively. The analysis includes a general bibliometric analysis (publications output, country-wise research output, authorship, and collaboration patterns of these published articles). It also includes a citation analysis (keywords, most cited keywords, organizations, most cited articles, and average citations per article) and a network analysis (authors and countries). Overall, this study provides bibliometric insights and future research directions for researchers and practitioners who use DSSs.

Towards Sustainable Neighborhoods in Europe: Mitigating 12 Environmental Impacts by Successively Applying 8 Scenarios

The purpose of this research is to determine the most impactful and important source of environmental change at the neighborhood level. The study of multiple scenarios allows us to determine the influence of several parameters on the results of the life cycle analysis of the neighborhood. We are looking at quantifying the impact of orientation, storm water management, density, mobility and the use of renewable energies on the environmental balance sheet of a neighborhood, based on eleven environmental indicators. An eco-neighborhood, located in Belgium, has been selected as the modeling site. The results show that the management of mobility is the parameter that can reduce the impact the most, in terms of greenhouse effect, odor, damage to biodiversity and health. With the adaptation of photovoltaic panels on the site, the production exceeds the consumption all through the year, except for the months of December and January, when the installation covers 45% and 75% of the consumption, respectively. Increasing the built density of the neighborhood by roof stacking allows the different environmental impacts, calculated per inhabitant, to be homogeneously minimized.

Exergetic Life Cycle Assessment: A Review

Exergy is important and relevant in many areas of study such as Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), sustainability, energy systems, and the built environment. With the growing interest in the study of LCA due to the awareness of global environmental impacts, studies have been conducted on exergetic life cycle assessment for resource accounting. The aim of this paper is to review existing studies on exergetic life cycle assessment to investigate the state-of-the-art and identify the benefits and opportunity for improvement. The methodology used entailed an in-depth literature review, which involved an analysis of journal articles collected through a search of databases such as Web of Science Core Collection, Scopus, and Google Scholar. The selected articles were reviewed and analyzed, and the findings are presented in this paper. The following key conclusions were reached: (a) exergy-based methods provide an improved measure of sustainability, (b) there is an opportunity for a more comprehensive approach to exergetic life cycle assessment that includes life cycle emission, (c) a new terminology is required to describe the combination of exergy of life cycle resource use and exergy of life cycle emissions, and (d) improved exergetic life cycle assessment has the potential to solve characterization and valuation problems in the LCA methodology.

Effect of Decarbonisation Policies and Climate Change on Environmental Impacts due to Heating and Cooling in a Single-Family House

Climate change is associated with global warming. This paper discusses the environmental impacts of the decarbonisation plan proposed by the Spanish Government, comparing the current situation with those foreseen for 2020 and 2030. Furthermore, climate change will vary the thermal demands of buildings. The paper thus investigates the heating and cooling demands of a type of single-family house located in eight Spanish cities with very different climates and altitude. The combined effects of the decarbonisation plan and climate change are analysed based on the environmental impacts caused by the electricity required to meet thermal demands. Both effects led to a reduction of the damage in the categories Human Health (59–68%), Climate Change (57–67%) and Resources (54–65%). However, the damage to Ecosystem Quality will increase (5–28%) as a result of the greater impact on this damage category from the energy production scenario for 2030, although thermal requirements in households will decrease.

A Resilience and Environmentally Sustainable Assessment Framework (RESAF) for Domestic Building Materials in Saudi Arabia

In Saudi Arabia, the carbon footprint and energy use that results from using concrete in construction is a major negative contributor to the environmental effects of building materials. Likewise, the impact of annual cooling and heating energy demands has an equally prominent role to play. These demands need to be assessed and benchmarked in order that reduction targets can be set. Saudi Arabia presents its own unique context and local conditions, which creates a challenge when utilizing generic frameworks for assessing the environmental impact of domestic buildings. In meeting this aim, this paper presents a resilience and environmental sustainability assessment framework (RESAF) developed specifically for domestic buildings in Saudi Arabia. RESAF helps designers/builders to minimize the carbon footprint of the building fabric and reduce in-use energy demands of domestic buildings in Saudi Arabia. This paper shows how this framework can be used to reduce, by approximately 23%, the carbon impact from construction materials, primarily by substituting a portion of cement for pulverized fly ash (PFA) or ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS). A reduction of 19% in annual cooling and heating energy demand were additionally achieved throughout the building’s life, simply by increasing insulation and using triple-glazed windows. The importance of passing these alternative solutions through the resilience filter is highlighted, not least questioning whether they are really fit-for-purpose.

The Role of Green Building Materials in Reducing Environmental and Human Health Impacts

Conventional building materials (CBMs) made from non-renewable resources are the main source of indoor air contaminants, whose impact can extend from indoors to outdoors. Given their sustainable development (SD) prospect, green building materials (GBMs) with non-toxic, natural, and organic compounds have the potential to reduce their overall impacts on environmental and human health. In this regard, biocomposites as GBMs are environmentally friendly, safe, and recyclable materials and their replacement of CBMs reduces environmental impacts and human health concerns. This study aims to develop a model of fully hybrid bio-based biocomposite as non-structural GBMs and compare it with fully petroleum-based composite in terms of volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions and human health impacts. Using a small chamber test (American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)-D5116) for VOC investigation and SimaPro software modeling with the ReCiPe method for evaluating human health impacts. Life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology is used, and the results indicate that switching the fully hybrid bio-based biocomposite with the fully petroleum-based composite could reduce more than 50% impacts on human health in terms of indoor and outdoor. Our results indicate that the usage of biocomposite as GBMs can be an environmentally friendly solution for reducing the total indoor and outdoor impacts on human health.

Moisture Performance of Façade Elements Made of Thermally Modified Norway Spruce Wood

Wooden façades are gaining in importance. Thermally modified wood is becoming one of the preferred materials for claddings. In spite of the fact that façades made of thermally modified wood have been in use for more than two decades, reports about long-term monitoring have been sparse. The results of three-year monitoring of a façade made of thermally modified wood in Ljubljana are reported. Moisture content measurements of thermally modified façades were taken at 22 locations and compared to the moisture content of untreated Norway spruce wood. Temperature and relative humidity were recorded in parallel. The moisture content of the wood was compared to the average relative humidity before the measurements. The results confirm the lower moisture content of thermally modified wood in comparison to reference Norway spruce. The moisture content of the wooden façade could be best correlated with the average relative humidity and temperature 48 h before the wood moisture content measurement was taken.

Recyclable Architecture: Prefabricated and Recyclable Typologies

Buildings are being demolished without taking into the account the waste generated, and the housing shortage problem is getting more critical as cities are growing and the demand for built space and the use of resources are increasing. Architectural projects have been using prefabrication and modular systems to solve these problems. However, there is an absence of structures that can be disassembled and reused when the structure’s life ran its course. This paper presents three building prototypes of new recyclable architectural typologies: (i) a Slab prototype designed as a shelf structure where wooden housing modules can be plugged in and out, (ii) a Tower prototype allowing for an easy change of layout and use of different floors and (iii) a Demountable prototype characterized by the entire demountability of the building. These typologies combine modularity, flexibility, and disassembling to address the increasing demands for multi-use, re-usable and resource-efficient constructions. Design, drawings, plans, and 3D models are developed, tested and analyzed as a part of the research. The results show that the implementation of the recyclable architectural concept at the first design stage is feasible and realistic, and ensures the adaptation through time, increases life span, usability and the material reusability, while avoiding demolition, which in turn reduces the construction waste and, consequently, the CO2 emissions.

Environmental and Economic Life Cycle Analysis of Primary Construction Materials Sourcing Under Geopolitical Uncertainties: A Case Study of Qatar

Environmental and economic cycles under varying geopolitical uncertainties can lead to unsustainable patterns that significantly and negatively affect the welfare of nations. With the ever-increasing negative environmental and economic impacts, the ability to achieve sustainability is hindered if the implications are not properly assessed in challenging geopolitical crises. The infrequent and fluctuating nature of these challenging geopolitical settings causes disregard and neglect for exploration within this issue. In this study, a comparative life cycle assessment was conducted as a method to evaluate the environmental and economic impacts of construction material flow across country boundaries. Based on the results found from the life cycle assessment, an environmental forecast and sensitivity analysis were established. Considering the State of Qatar as a case study, asphalt and bitumen, cement, limestone, sand, and steel were analyzed from gate-to-gate depending on transportation mode and distances used within both the pre-crisis and post-crisis sub-periods, comparing carbon emissions and costs. The results showed that the mode of transport plays a significant role in terms of carbon dioxide emissions as opposed to distance traveled. However, the increase in distance coupled to the majority shift from land to sea-based transport resulted in an overall increase in carbon emissions and costs post-crisis. In addition, the analysis of the environmental and economic impact assessment using the average CO2 equivalent (CO2-e) per kilogram and the unit price of the five primary construction materials has shown a significant, 70.68% increase in global warming potentials (GWP) after the crisis, coupled with an increase in the overall cost. An assessment of environmental and economic impacts during geopolitical uncertainties allows for the significant ability to realize sustainable measures to greatly reduce economic and environmental degradation.

Multi-objective green design model to mitigate environmental impact of construction of mega columns for super-tall buildings

The mega columns used in super-tall buildings are several meters in size; thus, a greater quantity of construction materials are required than for a general column. Considering the environmental impact, research on a green design model for super-tall buildings is necessary. This design model should minimize both CO₂ emissions and cost in the mega-column construction and design phases with consideration of the member or building size. In this regard, a multi-objective green design model (MOGDM) capable of minimizing construction cost and reducing CO₂ emissions is proposed in this study. The MOGDM is applied to the design of mega columns for a super-tall building and its performance is evaluated based on the average environmental impact reduction rate (AER) and the average increase-in-cost reduction rate (AICR); these indexes are developed to assess the CO₂ emission and construction cost reduction capability. Under the loading scenarios considered in this study, the average AER and AICR for the MOGDM output are 6.76% and 58.02%, respectively. Thus, the evaluation results confirm that the MOGDM proposed in this study can effectively reduce CO₂ emissions and cost in the design and construction phases of mega columns for super-tall buildings.

Life Cycle Assessment Contribution in the Product Development Process: Case Study of Wood Aluminum-Laminated Panel

The benefits of aluminum lamination in improving the physical and mechanical properties of wood-based composites is now well documented. This paper shows the contribution of life cycle assessment (LCA) as a tool to assess and compare the environmental footprint in the development of laminated panels. SimaPro 9.0 software, using Ecoinvent database was used to analyze the environmental impacts associated with the manufacturing of wood aluminum-laminated (WAL) panels and aluminum honeycomb panel (AHP). The impact 2002+ method was used to estimate environmental impacts. The LCA results show that the WAL panels manufacturing had a lower environmental impact than AHP manufacturing. In term of product, wood-based composites were the best choice as a core in laminated panel manufacturing. Wood-based composite manufacturing showed environmental advantages in all damage categories except in ecosystem quality. Aluminum alloy sheets manufacturing played an important role in the generation of environmental impacts for laminated panel development.

Environmental Optimization of Precast Concrete Beams Using Fibre Reinforced Polymers

Increasing importance is being attached to materials in the life-cycle of a building. In the Netherlands, material life-cycle assessments (LCA) are now mandatory for almost all new buildings, on which basis the building is then awarded a building environmental performance or MPG [Milieuprestatie Gebouwen] score. The objective of this study is to reduce the environmental–economic (shadow) costs of precast reinforced concrete (RC) beams in a conventional Dutch office building, thereby improving its MPG score. Two main optimizations are introduced: first, the amount of concrete is reduced, designing a cavity in the cross-section of the beam; second, part of the reinforcement is replaced with a fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) tube. The structural calculations draw from a combination of several codes and FRP recommendations. Hollow FRP-RC beams (with an elongated oval cavity), and flax, glass, and kenaf fibre tubes yielded the lowest shadow costs. In particular, the flax tube obtained shadow costs that were 39% lower than those of the hollow RC beam (with an elongated oval cavity); which also contributed to decreasing the shadow costs of other building components (e.g., facade), thereby reducing the MPG score of the building. However, this study also shows that it is important to select the right type of FRP as hemp fibre tubes resulted in a 98% increase in shadow costs.

The Paradigms of Industry 4.0 and Circular Economy as Enabling Drivers for the Competitiveness of Businesses and Territories: The Case of an Italian Ceramic Tiles Manufacturing Company

Sustainable development and the circular economy are two important issues for the future and the competitiveness of businesses. The programs for the integration of sustainability into industrial activities include the reconfiguration of production processes with a view to reducing their impact on the natural system, the development of new eco-sustainable products and the redesign of the business model. This paradigm shift requires the participation and commitment of different stakeholder groups and industry can completely redesign supply chains, aiming at resource efficiency and circularity. Developments in key ICT technologies, such as the Internet of Things (IoT), help this systemic transition. This paper explores the phases of the transition from a linear to a circular economy and proposes a procedure for introducing the principles of sustainability (environmental, economic and social) in a manufacturing environment, through the design of a new Circular Business Model (CBM). The new procedure has been tested and validated in an Italian company producing ceramic tiles, using the digitalization of the production processes of the Industry 4.0 environment, to implement the impact assessment tools (LCA—Life Cycle Assessment, LCC—Life Cycle Costing and S-LCA—Social Life Cycle Assessment) and the business intelligence systems to provide appropriate sustainability performance indicators essential for the definition of the new CBM.

Evaluating the Link between Low Carbon Reductions Strategies and Its Performance in the Context of Climate Change: A Carbon Footprint of a Wood-Frame Residential Building in Quebec, Canada

The design and study of low carbon buildings is a major concern in a modern economy due to high carbon emissions produced by buildings and its effects on climate change. Studies have investigated (CFP) Carbon Footprint of buildings, but there remains a need for a strong analysis that measure and quantify the overall degree of GHG emissions reductions and its relationship with the effect on climate change mitigation. This study evaluates the potential of reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the building sector by evaluating the (CFP) of four hotpots approaches defined in line with commonly carbon reduction strategies, also known as mitigation strategies. CFP framework is applied to compare the (CC) climate change impact of mitigation strategies. A multi-story timber residential construction in Quebec City (Canada) was chosen as a baseline scenario. This building has been designed with the idea of being a reference of sustainable development application in the building sector. In this scenario, the production of materials and construction (assembly, waste management and transportation) were evaluated. A CFP that covers eight actions divided in four low carbon strategies, including: low carbon materials, material minimization, reuse and recycle materials and adoption of local sources and use of biofuels were evaluated. The results of this study shows that the used of prefabricated technique in buildings is an alternative to reduce the CFP of buildings in the context of Quebec. The CC decreases per m2 floor area in baseline scenario is up to 25% than current buildings. If the benefits of low carbon strategies are included, the timber structures can generate 38% lower CC than the original baseline scenario. The investigation recommends that CO2eq emissions reduction in the design and implementation of residential constructions as climate change mitigation is perfectly feasible by following different working strategies. It is concluded that if the four strategies were implemented in current buildings they would have environmental benefits by reducing its CFP. The reuse wood wastes into production of particleboard has the greatest environmental benefit due to temporary carbon storage.