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Rucinque DS, Velarde A, Xercavins A, Varvaró-Porter A, Gibson TJ, Michel V, Contreras-Jodar A. Alternatives to Carbon Dioxide in Two Phases for the Improvement of Broiler Chickens' Welfare during Stunning. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:486. [PMID: 38338133 PMCID: PMC10854911 DOI: 10.3390/ani14030486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 01/25/2024] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
This study evaluated the exposure to gas mixtures of carbon dioxide (CO2) associated with nitrogen (N2) as alternatives to CO2 in two phases to improve the welfare of broiler chickens at slaughter. Broilers were exposed to one of three treatments: 40C90C (1st phase: <40% CO2 for 2 min; 2nd phase: >90% CO2 and <2% O2 for 2 min, n = 92), 40C60N (40% CO2, 60% N2, and <2% O2 for 4 min, n = 79), or 20C80N (20% CO2, 80% N2, and <2% O2 for 4 min, n = 72). Brain activity (EEG) was assessed to determine the onset of loss of consciousness (LOC) and death. Behavioural assessment allowed for characterisation of an aversive response to the treatments and confirmed loss of posture (LOP) and motionlessness as behavioural proxies of LOC and brain death in 40C60N and 20N80C. However, the lack of quality of the EEG traces obtained in 40C90C did not allow us to determine the onset of LOC and brain death for this treatment. The onset of LOC in 40C60N was found at 19 s [14-30 s] and in 20C80N at 21 s [16-37 s], whereas a LOP was seen at 53 s [26-156 s] in 40C90C. Birds showed brain death in 40C60N at 64 s [43-108 s] and in 20C80N at 70 s [45-88 s]), while they became motionless in 40C90C at 177 s [89-212 s]. The 40C90C birds not only experienced more events of aversive behaviours related to mucosal irritation, dyspnoea, and breathlessness during induction to unconsciousness but were at risk of remaining conscious when the CO2 concentration was increased in the 2nd phase (known to cause severe pain). From an animal welfare point of view, 40C60N proved to be the least aversive of the three treatments tested, followed by 20C80N and 40C90C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Santiago Rucinque
- Animal Welfare Program, Institute of Agrifood Research and Technology (IRTA), 17121 Monells, Spain; (D.S.R.); (A.V.); (A.X.); (A.V.-P.)
| | - Antonio Velarde
- Animal Welfare Program, Institute of Agrifood Research and Technology (IRTA), 17121 Monells, Spain; (D.S.R.); (A.V.); (A.X.); (A.V.-P.)
| | - Aida Xercavins
- Animal Welfare Program, Institute of Agrifood Research and Technology (IRTA), 17121 Monells, Spain; (D.S.R.); (A.V.); (A.X.); (A.V.-P.)
| | - Aranzazu Varvaró-Porter
- Animal Welfare Program, Institute of Agrifood Research and Technology (IRTA), 17121 Monells, Spain; (D.S.R.); (A.V.); (A.X.); (A.V.-P.)
| | - Troy John Gibson
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hatfield AL9 7TA, UK;
| | - Virginie Michel
- Direction of Strategy and Programmes, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES), 14 Rue Pierre et Marie Curie, 94701 Maisons-Alfort, France;
| | - Alexandra Contreras-Jodar
- Animal Welfare Program, Institute of Agrifood Research and Technology (IRTA), 17121 Monells, Spain; (D.S.R.); (A.V.); (A.X.); (A.V.-P.)
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Bigge A, Purdum S, Hanford K. Comparison of electrocardiogram parameters during two methods of euthanasia in white leghorn hens. Res Vet Sci 2023; 156:54-59. [PMID: 36780798 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2023.01.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Revised: 01/09/2023] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
This study's objective was to evaluate if electrocardiogram (ECG) parameters differ depending on euthanasia method, and if welfare implications result. Sixteen mature laying hens previously outfitted with subcutaneous wireless telemetry and housed in conventional cages or aviaries were used. Manual cervical dislocation (CD) and 30% CO2 displacement were chosen. Continuous ECG data collection began 5 min prior to the procedure to establish a baseline, then continued during and following euthanasia until complete cessation of cardiac activity. Insensibility and euthanasia were determined by an experienced handler to be loss of posture and the end of neuromuscular convulsions with no noticeable breathing. The attending veterinarian monitored and confirmed successful euthanasia via auscultation of the heart. Veterinary confirmation occurred within 5 min for all hens, thus a 5-min sampling period was used. Samples of ten successive QRS complexes per hen per minute were used to calculate average QRS complex amplitude and heart rate. Data were analyzed using the Glimmix Procedure in SAS 9.4, and reported as deviations from baseline. Housing was not a significant factor (p > 0.05). Heart rate showed a significant effect for method (p = 0.0232), time (p < 0.0001), and method*time interaction (p = 0.0001). Compared to baseline, heart rate for CD was 238 bpm higher at minute 1 (p < 0.0001) and 106 bpm higher at minute 2 (p = 0.0027) compared to CO2. While there was no significant effect of method on QRS amplitude (p = 0.6220), there was a time effect (p = 0.0266). Cervical dislocation as a method of euthanasia may induce a greater stress response in laying hens compared to CO2 displacement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley Bigge
- University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Animal Science Department, USA.
| | - Sheila Purdum
- University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Animal Science Department, USA
| | - Kathryn Hanford
- University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Animal Science Department, USA
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3
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Pre-slaughter stress mitigation in goats: Prospects and challenges. Meat Sci 2023; 195:109010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2022.109010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2022] [Revised: 09/12/2022] [Accepted: 10/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Description of electroencephalographic data gathered using water-based medium-expansion foam as a depopulation method for nursery pigs. Sci Rep 2022; 12:16798. [PMID: 36207428 PMCID: PMC9546833 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-21353-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The United States' swine industry is under constant threat of foreign animal diseases, which may emerge without warning due to the globalized transportation networks moving people, animals, and products. Therefore, having disease control and elimination protocols in place prior to pathogen introduction is paramount for business continuity and economic recovery. During extraordinary circumstances, it may become necessary to depopulate large populations of animals, including swine, as a disease containment measure. Currently approved depopulation methods for swine present significant logistical challenges when scaled to large populations or performed in field conditions. In the United States, water-based foam is currently approved for poultry depopulation, and recent field studies demonstrate water-based foam is an effective depopulation alternative for swine. While effective, the speed at which water-based foam induces loss of consciousness prior to death, a major welfare consideration, has not been adequately investigated. In this study, 12 nursery pigs were terminated using water-based medium-expansion foam to quantify the time to induce loss of consciousness and ultimately brain death. Each pig was implanted with subdermal electrodes to capture electroencephalographic data, placed in a body sling, and suspended in a plastic bulk container that was subsequently filled with water-based foam. Electroencephalographic data was recorded for 15 min, during which the pigs remained immersed in the water-based foam. Conservatively, average (± SD) time to unconsciousness and brain death was 1 min, 53 s ± 36 s and 3 min, 3 s ± 56 s, respectively. The relatively rapid loss of consciousness compared to other methods limits the amount of distress and is overall a positive finding for the welfare of the pigs that might be depopulated with water-based foam. The findings of this study add additional evidence supporting the use of water-based medium-expansion foam for an emergency depopulation of swine.
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Friedman A, Dalla Costa FA, Dalla Costa OA, Godsell-Ryan A, Gibson TJ. Time to Loss of Behavioral and Brainstem Responses of Ducks following Non-Stunned Slaughter. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11123531. [PMID: 34944306 PMCID: PMC8698063 DOI: 10.3390/ani11123531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2021] [Revised: 12/05/2021] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary For routine poultry slaughter, animals are stunned prior to the act of slaughter to prevent pain and distress. Halal slaughter requires either reversible or no stunning before performance of the neck cut. This study measured how long it takes for ducks to lose consciousness following non-stunned slaughter in a commercial processing plant. The study found that ducks take up to 383 s to lose consciousness. The performance of a cut higher on the neck resulted in a faster time to loss of consciousness. This study is the first investigation of the time to loss of consciousness following non-stunned slaughter of ducks in commercial conditions. These results could be used to improve the welfare of ducks during non-stunned slaughter, such as recommending a higher neck cut and ensuring appropriate waiting periods between slaughter and birds entering the scalding tanks. Abstract Non-stunned slaughter has been extensively described for other farmed species but there has been limited research on waterfowl. The study assessed 34 White Pekin ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) (study 1) in a non-stunned halal slaughterhouse in Brazil for time to loss of consciousness using various behavioral and brainstem indices (balance, cranial nerve reflexes, and muscle tension) and assessed the relationship between extent of clotting, location of neck cut, level of damage to neck vessels/tissues, and the time to onset of unconsciousness. In addition, operator practices were separately observed and neck pathology following the cut was examined in 217 carcasses after bleeding (study 2). In study 1 following the neck cut there was a wide variation between birds in the time to loss of behavioral and brainstem indices, ranging from 20 to 334 and 20 to 383 s for neck and beak tension, respectively. The median time to loss of balance following the neck cut was 166 ± 14 (22–355) seconds. There was a moderate correlation (R = 0.60 and 0.62) between distance of the neck cut and time to loss of balance and neck tension, respectively. This is the first investigation of the time to loss of consciousness following non-stunned slaughter of ducks in commercial conditions. The findings could be used to improve the welfare of ducks during non-stunned slaughter, such as recommending performance of the neck cut closer to the jaw line and ensuring appropriate waiting periods between slaughter and birds entering the scalding tanks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Friedman
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield AL9 7TA, UK; (A.F.); (A.G.-R.)
| | | | | | - Alicia Godsell-Ryan
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield AL9 7TA, UK; (A.F.); (A.G.-R.)
| | - Troy John Gibson
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield AL9 7TA, UK; (A.F.); (A.G.-R.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +44-170-766-7078
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Baker-Cook B, Torrey S, Widowski TM, Turner PV, Knezacek T, Nicholds J, Schwean-Lardner K. The efficacy of three on-farm euthanasia methods for broiler chickens throughout the production cycle. Br Poult Sci 2021; 62:638-649. [PMID: 33908287 DOI: 10.1080/00071668.2021.1921109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
1. There is a need to humanely kill moribund or injured broiler birds on-farm with no reasonable chance of recovery. Two experiments evaluated the efficacy of three commercially applicable killing methods; manual cervical dislocation (CD), mechanical cervical dislocation with the Koechner Euthanising Device (KED) and a non-penetrative captive bolt device (Zephyr-EXL; ZEXL), at 7, 21 or 35 d of age, on their ability to induce insensibility (unconsciousness and loss of brain stem reflexes) and death.2. Experiment one assessed the damage to the cranial-cervical region resulting from the methods applied to cadavers of cull birds (n = 180) by radiography and gross pathology observation.3. Experiment two evaluated the latency to insensibility and death when cull broiler birds (n = 240) were killed by CD, KED or ZEXL, using behavioural and reflexive indicators. Insensibility and death were measured by the absence of pupillary light, palpebral blink and nictitating membrane reflexes and cessation of rhythmic breathing, cloacal winking and convulsions. Analysis of variance for the main effect of the method was performed to determine the differences.4. In experiment one, only the Zephyr resulted in skull fractures. A higher number of vertebral fractures occurred with KED application compared to CD, at 21 and 35 d.5. In experiment two, indicators of sensibility were absent earliest with the ZEXL (μ < 2 s); then,CD (μ = 28 s) and were longest with KED (μ = 47 s), at 21 and 35 d. Cloacal winking and convulsions ceased earlier after CD (88 s), compared to either KED (124 s) or Zephyr (118 s). Death after a single application occurred 100%, 100% and 98% of time for CD, KED and ZEXL, respectively.6. Overall, all methods were efficacious at inducing insensibility and death. Insensibility occurred earliest with ZEXL, whilst death occurred earliest with CD. KED resulted in the longest time to insensibility and death.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Baker-Cook
- Animal and Poultry Science, University of Saskatchewan College of Agriculture and Bioresources, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - S Torrey
- Campbell Centre for Study of Animal Welfare, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - T M Widowski
- Campbell Centre for Study of Animal Welfare, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - P V Turner
- Dept of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - T Knezacek
- Animal and Poultry Science, University of Saskatchewan College of Agriculture and Bioresources, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - J Nicholds
- Poultry Diagnostics and Research Center, Department of Population Health, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - K Schwean-Lardner
- Animal and Poultry Science, University of Saskatchewan College of Agriculture and Bioresources, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
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7
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Stiewert A, Archer G. Comparing two captive bolt devices on market age Pekin ducks. J APPL POULTRY RES 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.japr.2021.100162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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Dalla Costa FA, Gibson TJ, Oliveira SEO, Gregory NG, Coldebella A, Faucitano L, Ludtke CB, Buss LP, Dalla Costa OA. Evaluation of physical euthanasia for neonatal piglets on-farm. J Anim Sci 2020; 98:5867192. [PMID: 32620008 DOI: 10.1093/jas/skaa204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Twenty-seven neonate piglets (range from 0.35 to 1.17 kg) were evaluated for the effectiveness of blunt force trauma as a method of on-farm cull. Brainstem function, brain injury, and hemorrhage scores (increasing from 0 to 3) were assessed after striking the head against a concrete floor. Electroencephalograms (EEG) from a subset of 15 piglets were recorded before and after blunt force trauma for electrophysiological assessments. Blunt force trauma was performed by a single experienced farmer in a commercial farm by holding the piglet by its both hind legs and striking the head against the concrete floor. All piglets remained recumbent and did not show brainstem reflexes. Only one piglet did not presented tonic/clonic physical activity. The mean time to the onset of persistent isoelectric EEG was 64.3 ± 7.3 s (range 18 to 115). Total power, theta, alpha, and beta power decreased to approximately 45%, 30%, 20%, and 15% from pretreatment power, respectively, by 15-s post-impact. There were no periods of normal-like EEG after the culling. Bruises in the neck and shoulder were found in 67% and 70% of piglets, respectively. All piglets presented skull fractures with 20% having the nasal bone(s) fractured. Brain damage was found in all piglets, mainly in the frontal lobe(s). The occipital lobe(s) presented the greatest frequency of severe damage. The analysis of the radiographs also found a high frequency of fractures in this region. Hemorrhage was most frequent in the frontal, parietal, occipital lobes, and midbrain. When performed correctly with the appropriate weight class, blunt force trauma can be used as an effective method for the on-farm killing of nursing piglets resulting in death. However, this method should not be promoted over more reliable and repeatable cull methods such as captive bolt gun. As with blunt force trauma, there is a significant potential for animal welfare harm associated with inappropriate practice, lack of accuracy, issues with repeatability, and operator fatigue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filipe Antonio Dalla Costa
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Zootecnia, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias, UNESP - São Paulo State University, Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil.,Maneja Bem-estar animal, MANEJA, Concórdia, SC, Brazil
| | | | - Steffan Edward Octávio Oliveira
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Zootecnia, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias, UNESP - São Paulo State University, Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil.,Maneja Bem-estar animal, MANEJA, Concórdia, SC, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | - Liziè Peréirã Buss
- Departamento de Sistemas de Produção e Sustentabilidade, Ministério da Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento - MAPA, Brasília, DF, Brazil
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Nielsen SS, Alvarez J, Bicout DJ, Calistri P, Depner K, Drewe JA, Garin-Bastuji B, Gonzales Rojas JL, Gortázar Schmidt C, Miranda Chueca MÁ, Roberts HC, Sihvonen LH, Spoolder H, Stahl K, Velarde Calvo A, Viltrop A, Winckler C, Candiani D, Fabris C, Van der Stede Y, Michel V. Killing for purposes other than slaughter: poultry. EFSA J 2019; 17:e05850. [PMID: 32626157 PMCID: PMC7008794 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2019.5850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Poultry of different ages may have to be killed on-farm for purposes other than slaughter (in which slaughtering is defined as being for human consumption) either individually or on a large scale (e.g. because unproductive, for disease control, etc.). The processes of on-farm killing that were assessed are handling and stunning and/or killing methods (including restraint). The latter were grouped into four categories: electrical methods, modified atmosphere, mechanical methods and lethal injection. In total, 29 hazards were identified and characterised, most of these regard stunning and/or killing. Staff were identified as origin for 26 hazards and 24 hazards were attributed to lack of appropriate skill sets needed to perform tasks or due to fatigue. Specific hazards were identified for day-old chicks killed via maceration. Corrective and preventive measures were assessed: measures to correct hazards were identified for 13 hazards, and management showed to have a crucial role in prevention. Eight welfare consequences, the birds can be exposed to during on-farm killing, were identified: not dead, consciousness, heat stress, cold stress, pain, fear, distress and respiratory distress. Welfare consequences and relevant animal-based measures were described. Outcome tables linking hazards, welfare consequences, animal-based measures, origins, preventive and corrective measures were developed for each process. Mitigation measures to minimise welfare consequences were also proposed.
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Nielsen SS, Alvarez J, Bicout DJ, Calistri P, Depner K, Drewe JA, Garin-Bastuji B, Gonzales Rojas JL, Gortázar Schmidt C, Miranda Chueca MÁ, Roberts HC, Sihvonen LH, Spoolder H, Stahl K, Velarde Calvo A, Viltrop A, Winckler C, Candiani D, Fabris C, Van der Stede Y, Michel V. Slaughter of animals: poultry. EFSA J 2019; 17:e05849. [PMID: 32626156 PMCID: PMC7008870 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2019.5849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The killing of poultry for human consumption (slaughtering) can take place in a slaughterhouse or during on-farm slaughter. The processes of slaughtering that were assessed, from the arrival of birds in containers until their death, were grouped into three main phases: pre-stunning (including arrival, unloading of containers from the truck, lairage, handling/removing of birds from containers); stunning (including restraint); and bleeding (including bleeding following stunning and bleeding during slaughter without stunning). Stunning methods were grouped into three categories: electrical, controlled modified atmosphere and mechanical. In total, 35 hazards were identified and characterised, most of them related to stunning and bleeding. Staff were identified as the origin of 29 hazards, and 28 hazards were attributed to the lack of appropriate skill sets needed to perform tasks or to fatigue. Corrective and preventive measures were assessed: measures to correct hazards were identified for 11 hazards, with management shown to have a crucial role in prevention. Ten welfare consequences, the birds can be exposed to during slaughter, were identified: consciousness, heat stress, cold stress, prolonged thirst, prolonged hunger, restriction of movements, pain, fear, distress and respiratory distress. Welfare consequences and relevant animal-based measures were described. Outcome tables linking hazards, welfare consequences, animal-based measures, origins, and preventive and corrective measures were developed for each process. Mitigation measures to minimise welfare consequences were also proposed.
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11
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Hernandez E, James F, Torrey S, Widowski T, Schwean-Lardner K, Monteith G, Turner PV. Evaluation of Brain Death in Laying Hens During On-Farm Killing by Cervical Dislocation Methods or Pentobarbital Sodium Injection. Front Vet Sci 2019; 6:297. [PMID: 31552284 PMCID: PMC6733910 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2019.00297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2019] [Accepted: 08/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
This study investigated changes in the electroencephalograph (EEG) power spectrum as well as physiological and behavioral responses to on-farm killing via mechanical cervical dislocation (MCD), manual cervical dislocation (CD) or intravenous pentobarbital sodium administration in lightly anesthetized laying hens, to evaluate the welfare impact of each method. A mixed group of 44 white Leghorn and Smoky Joe laying hens (60 weeks-old) were anesthetized with isoflurane in oxygen and maintained at 1.5–2% isoflurane/O2 until the killing method was applied. Birds were randomly assigned to one of three experimental groups on each trial day. The EEG was recorded bilaterally in a four-electrode montage. After recording a 5-min baseline, the killing method was applied and EEGs and other behavioral and physiological responses, including convulsions, gasping, cessation of body movements and feather erection were recorded for 5 min. Changes in EEG frequency bands (alpha, beta, delta, theta), median frequency (F50), 95% spectral edge frequency (F95), and total power (Ptot) were used to assess the quality of the on-farm killing event. Within 15 s after administration of pentobarbital sodium, there were significant decreases in mean frequency bands, increases in mean F50 and F95, and decreases in Ptot, suggesting brain death. In addition, birds presented a shorter latency to cessation of movement after pentobarbital sodium injection compared to MCD and CD (22 vs. 115 s and 136 s, respectively). There were significant increases in F95 and decreases in Ptot at 120 s after application of CD; and a concomitant decrease in the frequency bands at 135 s and isoelectric EEG at 171 ± 15 s. Changes consistent with brain death after MCD included isoelectric EEG at 207 ± 23 s and a significant decreases in some frequency bands at 300 s post-application. No other significant spectrum frequency changes were observed in the MCD group, suggesting brain death likely occurred near the 5-min endpoint. There was no clear association between behavioral, physiological, and EEG responses within CD and MCD treatments. The data demonstrate that pentobarbital sodium induced a rapid death with minimal behavioral and physiological responses regardless of strain of hens. In comparison, use of CD and MCD resulted in a slow onset of brain death in hens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elein Hernandez
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Fiona James
- Department of Clinical Studies, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Stephanie Torrey
- Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Tina Widowski
- Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Karen Schwean-Lardner
- College of Agricultural and Bioresources, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Gabrielle Monteith
- Department of Clinical Studies, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Patricia V Turner
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
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12
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Shahdan IA, Regenstein JM, Rahman MT. Critical limits for the control points for halal poultry slaughter. Poult Sci 2018; 96:1970-1981. [PMID: 27965405 DOI: 10.3382/ps/pew427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2016] [Accepted: 10/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
This study proposes critical limits (CL) for control points for halal slaughter (CPHS). Previously, 6 control points (CP) were determined, and CL for these 6 CPHS are suggested based on: 1) a literature survey for the CL for CP 1 (poultry breeding, rearing, and poultry feed) and CP 2 (welfare of poultry during transportation and lairage); 2) a field survey of slaughter plants in Kuantan (Malaysia) for CP 3 (immobilization), CP 4 (slaughter), CP 5 (time for full bleed-out), and CP 6 (washing and packaging); and 3) controlled experiments to refine the CL for CP 3, 4, and 5. The CL for CP 1 focused on stress reduction during rearing and use of substances that could compromise poultry meat wholesomeness. The CL for CP 2 emphasizes humane best-practices for handling poultry during lairage. The CL for CP 3 suggests a gap of 5 s between 2 shackles if only one shackler is employed and shackling times of <1 min for live chickens. In countries permitting water-bath electrical stunning of halal poultry, the stunning current needed to induce unconsciousness must be defined for the breed and bird size but not cause any chicken deaths. The CL for CP 4 mandates the recitation of the tasmiyah (the invocation), which if done for every chicken, will require ≥5 s between stunning and neck cutting. The CL for CP 4 also includes information about the slaughter knife. In CP 5 the recommended minimum time between neck cutting and scalding is 9.5 min. Finally, the CL for CP 6 emphasizes good supply chain hygiene and zero adulteration from haram species and substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Intan Azura Shahdan
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, International Islamic University Malaysia, Jalan Istana, 25200 Kuantan, Malaysia.,Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, International Islamic University Malaysia, Jalan Istana, 25200 Kuantan, Malaysia
| | | | - Mohammad Tariqur Rahman
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, International Islamic University Malaysia, Jalan Istana, 25200 Kuantan, Malaysia.,Faculty of Dentistry, University Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
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13
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Evaluation of Two Models of Non-Penetrating Captive Bolt Devices for On-Farm Euthanasia of Turkeys. Animals (Basel) 2018; 8:ani8030042. [PMID: 29558419 PMCID: PMC5867530 DOI: 10.3390/ani8030042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2018] [Revised: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 03/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Animal care guidelines for livestock and poultry require farms to have euthanasia plans in place for birds that are sick, injured, or unable to access feed and water. Killing methods considered to be humane are those that induce rapid insensibility (stun) and result in brain death leading to irreversible respiratory and cardiac arrest. Therefore, the evaluation of the effectiveness of a killing method generally focuses on measures of insensibility and brain death. Non-penetrating captive bolt devices are intended to deliver sufficient force and energy to the head to result in immediate insensibility and brain death without penetrating the skin. We evaluated the effectiveness of two models of non-penetrating captive bolt devices when applied by stock people to different sizes and ages of turkeys, using signs of insensibility corroborated by ante- and post- mortem evaluation of brain damage. Both non-penetrating captive bolt devices used in this study were found to be highly effective at inducing immediate insensibility and would be appropriate for on-farm euthanasia of turkeys of various ages and size. Abstract On-farm euthanasia is a critical welfare issue in the poultry industry and can be particularly difficult to perform on mature turkeys due to their size. We evaluated the efficacy of two commercially available non-penetrating captive bolt devices, the Zephyr-EXL and the Turkey Euthanasia Device (TED), on 253 turkeys at three stages of production: 4–5, 10, and 15–20 weeks of age. Effectiveness of each device was measured using both ante- and post-mortem measures. Application of the Zephyr-EXL resulted in a greater success rate (immediate abolishment of brainstem reflexes) compared to the TED (97.6% vs. 89.3%, p = 0.0145). Times to last movement (p = 0.102) and cardiac arrest (p = 0.164) did not differ between devices. Ante- and post-mortem measures of trauma and hemorrhage were highly correlated. Skull fractures and gross subdural hemorrhage (SDH) were present in 100% of birds euthanized with both the Zephyr-EXL and TED devices. Gross SDH scores were greater in birds killed with the Zephyr-EXL than the TED (p < 0.001). Microscopic SDH scores indicated moderate to severe hemorrhage in 92% of turkeys for the Zephyr-EXL and 96% of turkeys for the TED, with no difference between devices (p = 0.844). Overall, both devices were highly effective inducing immediate insensibility through traumatic brain injury and are reliable, single-step methods for on-farm euthanasia of turkeys.
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Terlouw C, Bourguet C, Deiss V. Consciousness, unconsciousness and death in the context of slaughter. Part I. Neurobiological mechanisms underlying stunning and killing. Meat Sci 2016; 118:133-46. [PMID: 27103547 DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2016.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2015] [Revised: 02/29/2016] [Accepted: 03/09/2016] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
This review describes the neurobiological mechanisms that are relevant for the stunning and killing process of animals in the abattoir. The mechanisms underlying the loss of consciousness depend on the technique used: mechanical, electrical or gas stunning. Direct exsanguination (without prior stun) causes also a loss of consciousness before inducing death. The underlying mechanisms may involve cerebral anoxia or ischemia, or the depolarisation, acidification and/or the destruction of brain neurons. These effects may be caused by shock waves, electrical fields, the reduction or arrest of the cerebral blood circulation, increased levels of CO2 or low levels of O2 in the inhaled air, or the mechanical destruction of neurons. The targeted brain structures are the reticular formation, the ascending reticular activating system or thalamus, or the cerebral hemispheres in a general manner. Some of the techniques, when properly used, induce an immediate loss of consciousness; other techniques a progressive loss of consciousness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Terlouw
- INRA, UMR1213 Herbivores, 63122 Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France; Clermont Université, VetAgro Sup, UMR1213 Herbivores, BP 10448, 63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France.
| | | | - Véronique Deiss
- INRA, UMR1213 Herbivores, 63122 Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France; Clermont Université, VetAgro Sup, UMR1213 Herbivores, BP 10448, 63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France
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15
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Meyer RE. Physiologic Measures of Animal Stress during Transitional States of Consciousness. Animals (Basel) 2015; 5:702-16. [PMID: 26479382 PMCID: PMC4598702 DOI: 10.3390/ani5030380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2015] [Revised: 07/24/2015] [Accepted: 07/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Determination of the humaneness of methods used to produce unconsciousness in animals, whether for anesthesia, euthanasia, humane slaughter, or depopulation, relies on our ability to assess stress, pain, and consciousness within the contexts of method and application. Determining the subjective experience of animals during transitional states of consciousness, however, can be quite difficult; further, loss of consciousness with different agents or methods may occur at substantially different rates. Stress and distress may manifest behaviorally (e.g., overt escape behaviors, approach-avoidance preferences [aversion]) or physiologically (e.g., movement, vocalization, changes in electroencephalographic activity, heart rate, sympathetic nervous system [SNS] activity, hypothalamic-pituitary axis [HPA] activity), such that a one-size-fits-all approach cannot be easily applied to evaluate methods or determine specific species applications. The purpose of this review is to discuss methods of evaluating stress in animals using physiologic methods, with emphasis on the transition between the conscious and unconscious states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert E Meyer
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA.
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Wang D, Bai XX, Williams SC, Hua SC, Kim JW, Marshall NS, D'Rozario A, Grunstein RR. Modafinil Increases Awake EEG Activation and Improves Performance in Obstructive Sleep Apnea during Continuous Positive Airway Pressure Withdrawal. Sleep 2015; 38:1297-303. [PMID: 26158894 DOI: 10.5665/sleep.4912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2014] [Accepted: 12/23/2014] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES We examined the changes in waking electroencephalography (EEG) biomarkers with modafinil during continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) withdrawal in patients with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) to investigate neurophysiological evidence for potential neurocognitive improvements. DESIGN Randomized double-blind placebo-controlled crossover study. CPAP was used for the first night and then withdrawn for 2 subsequent nights. Each morning after the 2 CPAP withdrawal nights, patients received either 200 mg modafinil or placebo. After a 5-w washout, the procedure repeated with the crossover drug. SETTINGS University teaching hospital. PARTICIPANTS Stable CPAP users (n = 23 men with OSA). MEASUREMENT AND RESULTS Karolinska Drowsiness Test (KDT) (awake EEG measurement with eyes open and closed), Psychomotor Vigilance Task (PVT), and driving simulator Performance were assessed bihourly during the 3 testing days following CPAP treatment and CPAP withdrawal nights. Compared to placebo, modafinil significantly increased awake EEG activation (faster EEG frequency) with increased alpha/delta (A/D) ratio (P < 0.0001) and fast ratio = (alpha+beta)/(delta+theta) (P < 0.0001) across the 2 days of CPAP withdrawal. The A/D ratio significantly correlated with the driving simulator response time (P = 0.015), steering variation (P = 0.002), and PVT reaction time (P = 0.006). In contrast, individual EEG band power of alpha, beta, theta, and delta did not correlate with any neurocognitive performance. CONCLUSIONS Modafinil administration during continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) withdrawal increased awake EEG activation, which correlated to improved performance. This study provides supporting neurophysiological evidence that modafinil is a potential short-term treatment option during acute CPAP withdrawal.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Wang
- Sleep and Circadian Group, Woolcock Institute of Medical Research, University of Sydney, Australia.,Department of Respiratory and Sleep Medicine, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, Australia (work performed).,Sydney Local Health District, Sydney Australia.,Centre for Integrated Research and Understanding of Sleep (CIRUS), Australia
| | - Xiao Xue Bai
- Sleep and Circadian Group, Woolcock Institute of Medical Research, University of Sydney, Australia.,The First Hospital of Jilin University, China
| | - Shaun C Williams
- Sleep and Circadian Group, Woolcock Institute of Medical Research, University of Sydney, Australia.,Centre for Integrated Research and Understanding of Sleep (CIRUS), Australia
| | | | - Jong-Won Kim
- Centre for Integrated Research and Understanding of Sleep (CIRUS), Australia.,School of Physics, University of Sydney, Australia
| | - Nathaniel S Marshall
- Sleep and Circadian Group, Woolcock Institute of Medical Research, University of Sydney, Australia.,Centre for Integrated Research and Understanding of Sleep (CIRUS), Australia.,Sydney Nursing School, University of Sydney, Australia
| | - Angela D'Rozario
- Sleep and Circadian Group, Woolcock Institute of Medical Research, University of Sydney, Australia.,Sydney Local Health District, Sydney Australia.,Centre for Integrated Research and Understanding of Sleep (CIRUS), Australia
| | - Ronald R Grunstein
- Sleep and Circadian Group, Woolcock Institute of Medical Research, University of Sydney, Australia.,Department of Respiratory and Sleep Medicine, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, Australia (work performed).,Sydney Local Health District, Sydney Australia.,Centre for Integrated Research and Understanding of Sleep (CIRUS), Australia
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Verhoeven MTW, Gerritzen MA, Kluivers-Poodt M, Hellebrekers LJ, Kemp B. Validation of behavioural indicators used to assess unconsciousness in sheep. Res Vet Sci 2015; 101:144-53. [PMID: 26267105 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2015.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2014] [Revised: 06/07/2015] [Accepted: 06/14/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The validity of behavioural indicators to assess unconsciousness under different slaughter conditions is under (inter)national debate. The aim of this study was to validate eyelid-, withdrawal-, threat reflex and rhythmic breathing as indicators to assess unconsciousness in sheep. Sheep were monitored during repeated propofol anaesthesia (n=12) and during non-stunned slaughter (n=22). Changes in the EEG and behavioural indices of consciousness/unconsciousness were assessed and compared in sheep. Threat reflex and rhythmic breathing correlated with EEG activity during propofol anaesthesia whilst absence of non-rhythmic breathing or threat reflex indicated unconsciousness. None of the behavioural indicators correlated with EEG activity during non-stunned slaughter. Absence of regular breathing and eyelid reflex was observed 00:27±00:12 min and 00:59±00:17 min (mean±SD) respectively after animals were considered unconscious, indicating that absence of regular breathing and eyelid reflex are distinctly conservative indicators of unconsciousness during non-stunned slaughter in sheep.
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Affiliation(s)
- M T W Verhoeven
- Wageningen University and Research Centre, Livestock Research, P.O. Box 338, 6700 AH Wageningen, The Netherlands; Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 338, 6700 AH Wageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - M A Gerritzen
- Wageningen University and Research Centre, Livestock Research, P.O. Box 338, 6700 AH Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - M Kluivers-Poodt
- Wageningen University and Research Centre, Livestock Research, P.O. Box 338, 6700 AH Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - L J Hellebrekers
- Wageningen University and Research Centre, Central Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 65, 8200AB Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - B Kemp
- Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 338, 6700 AH Wageningen, The Netherlands
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Verhoeven MTW, Gerritzen MA, Hellebrekers LJ, Kemp B. Indicators used in livestock to assess unconsciousness after stunning: a review. Animal 2015; 9:320-30. [PMID: 25354537 PMCID: PMC4299535 DOI: 10.1017/s1751731114002596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2014] [Accepted: 09/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Assessing unconsciousness is important to safeguard animal welfare shortly after stunning at the slaughter plant. Indicators that can be visually evaluated are most often used when assessing unconsciousness, as they can be easily applied in slaughter plants. These indicators include reflexes originating from the brain stem (e.g. eye reflexes) or from the spinal cord (e.g. pedal reflex) and behavioural indicators such as loss of posture, vocalisations and rhythmic breathing. When physically stunning an animal, for example, captive bolt, most important indicators looked at are posture, righting reflex, rhythmic breathing and the corneal or palpebral reflex that should all be absent if the animal is unconscious. Spinal reflexes are difficult as a measure of unconsciousness with this type of stunning, as they may occur more vigorous. For stunning methods that do not physically destroy the brain, for example, electrical and gas stunning, most important indicators looked at are posture, righting reflex, natural blinking response, rhythmic breathing, vocalisations and focused eye movement that should all be absent if the animal is unconscious. Brain stem reflexes such as the cornea reflex are difficult as measures of unconsciousness in electrically stunned animals, as they may reflect residual brain stem activity and not necessarily consciousness. Under commercial conditions, none of the indicators mentioned above should be used as a single indicator to determine unconsciousness after stunning. Multiple indicators should be used to determine unconsciousness and sufficient time should be left for the animal to die following exsanguination before starting invasive dressing procedures such as scalding or skinning. The recording and subsequent assessment of brain activity, as presented in an electroencephalogram (EEG), is considered the most objective way to assess unconsciousness compared with reflexes and behavioural indicators, but is only applied in experimental set-ups. Studies performed in an experimental set-up have often looked at either the EEG or reflexes and behavioural indicators and there is a scarcity of studies that correlate these different readout parameters. It is recommended to study these correlations in more detail to investigate the validity of reflexes and behavioural indicators and to accurately determine the point in time at which the animal loses consciousness.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. T. W. Verhoeven
- Wageningen University and Research Centre, Livestock
Research, PO Box 65, 8200 AB
Lelystad, The Netherlands
- Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal
Sciences, Wageningen University, PO Box
338, 6700 AH Wageningen, The
Netherlands
| | - M. A. Gerritzen
- Wageningen University and Research Centre, Livestock
Research, PO Box 65, 8200 AB
Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - L. J. Hellebrekers
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht
University, PO Box 80154, 3508 TD
Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - B. Kemp
- Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal
Sciences, Wageningen University, PO Box
338, 6700 AH Wageningen, The
Netherlands
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Meyer RE, Morrow WEM, Stikeleather LF, Baird CL, Rice JM, Byrne H, Halbert BV, Styles DK. Evaluation of carbon dioxide administration for on-site mass depopulation of swine in response to animal health emergencies. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2014; 244:924-33. [PMID: 24697768 DOI: 10.2460/javma.244.8.924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Robert E Meyer
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS 39762
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20
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Johnson CL. A review of bird welfare during controlled atmosphere and electrical water-bath stunning. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2014; 245:60-8. [DOI: 10.2460/javma.245.1.60] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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21
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Pritchett EM, Rogers AG, Caputo MP, Benson ER, Alphin RL, Johnson AL. Application of the wireless electroencephalogram to measure stress in White Pekin ducks. Res Vet Sci 2014; 97:162-8. [PMID: 24934517 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2014.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2014] [Revised: 05/06/2014] [Accepted: 05/25/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Stress in poultry can produce many undesirable effects on bird health and production performance. The objective of this study was to develop and evaluate a potential measure to assess stress through analysis of brain activity using electroencephalography (EEG). In two experiments, White Pekin ducks were implanted with EEG transmitters and treated with potential stressors in a chamber or in their pens. Electrocardiograms and blood corticosterone levels were collected as standard measures of stress. EEG analysis showed an increase in the relative delta frequency and a decrease in the relative alpha frequency during the treatment period for shock (P < 0.05). EEG analysis of the second experiment showed no differences between time periods for all frequencies for all treatments. Based on these results, EEG is currently not a viable technique for the measurement of acute stress in commercial poultry.
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Affiliation(s)
- E M Pritchett
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware
| | - A G Rogers
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware
| | - M P Caputo
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware
| | - E R Benson
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware.
| | - R L Alphin
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware
| | - A L Johnson
- Department of Clinical Studies, New Bolton Center, University of Pennsylvania, Kennett Square, Pennsylvania
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Sandercock DA, Auckburally A, Flaherty D, Sandilands V, McKeegan DEF. Avian reflex and electroencephalogram responses in different states of consciousness. Physiol Behav 2014; 133:252-9. [PMID: 24878315 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2014.05.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2014] [Accepted: 05/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Defining states of clinical consciousness in animals is important in veterinary anaesthesia and in studies of euthanasia and welfare assessment at slaughter. The aim of this study was to validate readily observable reflex responses in relation to different conscious states, as confirmed by EEG analysis, in two species of birds under laboratory conditions (35-week-old layer hens (n=12) and 11-week-old turkeys (n=10)). We evaluated clinical reflexes and characterised electroencephalograph (EEG) activity (as a measure of brain function) using spectral analyses in four different clinical states of consciousness: conscious (fully awake), semi-conscious (sedated), unconscious-optimal (general anaesthesia), unconscious-sub optimal (deep hypnotic state), as well as assessment immediately following euthanasia. Jaw or neck muscle tone was the most reliable reflex measure distinguishing between conscious and unconscious states. Pupillary reflex was consistently observed until respiratory arrest. Nictitating membrane reflex persisted for a short time (<1 min) after respiratory arrest and brain death (isoelectric EEG). The results confirm that the nictitating membrane reflex is a conservative measure of death in poultry. Using spectral analyses of the EEG waveforms it was possible to readily distinguish between the different states of clinical consciousness. In all cases, when birds progressed from a conscious to unconscious state; total spectral power (PTOT) significantly increased, whereas median (F50) and spectral edge (F95) frequencies significantly decreased. This study demonstrates that EEG analysis can differentiate between clinical states (and loss of brain function at death) in birds and provides a unique integration of reflex responses and EEG activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dale A Sandercock
- Animal and Veterinary Science Research Group, Scotland's Rural College (SRUC), West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH16 4SA, UK
| | | | - Derek Flaherty
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Glasgow, UK
| | - Victoria Sandilands
- Avian Science Research Centre, Scotland's Rural College, Auchincruive Ayr KA6 5HW, UK
| | - Dorothy E F McKeegan
- Institute for Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, UK.
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Grandin T. Animal welfare and society concerns finding the missing link. Meat Sci 2014; 98:461-9. [PMID: 24928166 DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2014.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2014] [Revised: 05/12/2014] [Accepted: 05/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Young adults in developed countries are distanced from agriculture and the meat industry needs to do a better job of communicating with them. A major welfare concern is slaughter without stunning. Other concerns, such as poor stunning or high levels of bruising, can be easily corrected by management who is committed to maintaining high standards. Another concern is biological system overload, occurring when animals are bred for more productivity. Researchers and industry need to determine optimum production levels instead of maximums. Retailers are major drivers of animal welfare standards enforcement and they respond to pressure from both activists and consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Temple Grandin
- Dept. of Animal Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA.
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Guidance on the assessment criteria for studies evaluating the effectiveness of stunning interventions regarding animal protection at the time of killing. EFSA J 2013. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2013.3486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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Rankin MK, Alphin RL, Benson ER, Johnson AL, Hougentogler DP, Mohankumar P. Comparison of water-based foam and carbon dioxide gas emergency depopulation methods of turkeys. Poult Sci 2013; 92:3144-8. [PMID: 24235223 DOI: 10.3382/ps.2013-03341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Recommended response strategies for outbreaks of avian influenza and other highly contagious poultry diseases include surveillance, quarantine, depopulation, disposal, and decontamination. The best methods of emergency mass depopulation should maximize human health and safety while minimizing disease spread and animal welfare concerns. The goal of this project was to evaluate the effectiveness of 2 mass depopulation methods on adult tom turkeys. The methods tested were carbon dioxide gassing and water-based foam. The time to unconsciousness, motion cessation, brain death, and altered terminal cardiac activity were recorded for each bird through the use of an electroencephalogram, accelerometer, and electrocardiogram. Critical times for physiological events were extracted from sensor data and compiled in a spreadsheet for statistical analysis. A statistically significant difference was observed in time to brain death, with water-based foam resulting in faster brain death (µ = 190 s) than CO2 gas (µ = 242 s). Though not statistically significant, differences were found comparing the time to unconsciousness (foam: µ = 64 s; CO2 gas: µ = 90 s), motion cessation (foam: µ = 182 s; CO2 gas: µ = 153 s), and altered terminal cardiac activity (foam: µ = 208 s; CO2 gas µ = 242 s) between foam and CO2 depopulation treatments. The results of this study demonstrate that water-based foam can be used to effectively depopulate market size male turkeys.
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Affiliation(s)
- M K Rankin
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark 19716
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Benson ER, Alphin RL, Rankin MK, Caputo MP, Johnson AL. Electroencephalogram-based methodology for determining unconsciousness during depopulation. Avian Dis 2013; 56:884-90. [PMID: 23402108 DOI: 10.1637/10163-040912-reg.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
When an avian influenza or virulent Newcastle disease outbreak occurs within commercial poultry, key steps involved in managing a fast-moving poultry disease can include: education; biosecurity; diagnostics and surveillance; quarantine; elimination of infected poultry through depopulation or culling, disposal, and disinfection; and decreasing host susceptibility. Available mass emergency depopulation procedures include whole-house gassing, partial-house gassing, containerized gassing, and water-based foam. To evaluate potential depopulation methods, it is often necessary to determine the time to the loss of consciousness (LOC) in poultry. Many current approaches to evaluating LOC are qualitative and require visual observation of the birds. This study outlines an electroencephalogram (EEG) frequency domain-based approach for determining the point at which a bird loses consciousness. In this study, commercial broilers were used to develop the methodology, and the methodology was validated with layer hens. In total, 42 data sets from 13 broilers aged 5-10 wk and 12 data sets from four spent hens (age greater than 1 yr) were collected and analyzed. A wireless EEG transmitter was surgically implanted, and each bird was monitored during individual treatment with isoflurane anesthesia. EEG data were evaluated using a frequency-based approach. The alpha/delta (A/D, alpha: 8-12 Hz, delta: 0.5-4 Hz) ratio and loss of posture (LOP) were used to determine the point at which the birds became unconscious. Unconsciousness, regardless of the method of induction, causes suppression in alpha and a rise in the delta frequency component, and this change is used to determine unconsciousness. There was no statistically significant difference between time to unconsciousness as measured by A/D ratio or LOP, and the A/D values were correlated at the times of unconsciousness. The correlation between LOP and A/D ratio indicates that the methodology is appropriate for determining unconsciousness. The A/D ratio approach is suitable for monitoring during anesthesia, during depopulation, and in situations where birds cannot be readily viewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- E R Benson
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, University of Delaware, 242 Townsend Hall, Newark, DE 19716, USA.
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McKeegan D, Sandercock D, Gerritzen M. Physiological responses to low atmospheric pressure stunning and the implications for welfare. Poult Sci 2013; 92:858-68. [DOI: 10.3382/ps.2012-02749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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Benson ER, Alphin RL, Rankin MK, Caputo MP, Hougentogler DP, Johnson AL. Mass Emergency Water-Based Foam Depopulation of Poultry. Avian Dis 2012; 56:891-6. [DOI: 10.1637/10160-040912-reg.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Caputo MP, Benson ER, Pritchett EM, Hougentogler DP, Jain P, Patil C, Johnson AL, Alphin RL. Comparison of water-based foam and carbon dioxide gas mass emergency depopulation of White Pekin ducks. Poult Sci 2012; 91:3057-64. [PMID: 23155013 DOI: 10.3382/ps.2012-02514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The mass depopulation of production birds remains an effective means of controlling fast-moving, highly infectious diseases such as avian influenza and virulent Newcastle disease. Two experiments were performed to compare the physiological responses of White Pekin commercial ducks during foam depopulation and CO(2) gas depopulation. Both experiment 1 (5 to 9 wk of age) and 2 (8 to 14 wk of age) used electroencephalogram, electrocardiogram, and accelerometer to monitor and evaluate the difference in time to unconsciousness, motion cessation, brain death, altered terminal cardiac activity, duration of bradycardia, and elapsed time from onset of bradycardia to onset of unconsciousness between foam and CO(2) gas. Experiment 2 also added a third treatment, foam + atropine injection, to evaluate the effect of suppressing bradycardia. Experiment 1 resulted in significantly shorter times for all 6 physiological points for CO(2) gas compared with foam, whereas experiment 2 found that there were no significant differences between foam and CO(2) gas for these physiological points except brain death, in which CO(2) was significantly faster than foam and duration of bradycardia, which was shorter for CO(2). Experiment 2 also determined there was a significant positive correlation between duration of bradycardia and time to unconsciousness, motion cessation, brain death, and altered terminal cardiac activity. The time to unconsciousness, motion cessation, brain death, and altered terminal cardiac activity was significantly faster for the treatment foam + atropine injection compared with foam. Both experiments showed that bradycardia can occur as a result of either submersion in foam or exposure to CO(2) gas. The duration of bradycardia has a significant impact on the time it takes White Pekin ducks to reach unconsciousness and death during depopulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- M P Caputo
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark 19716, USA
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Turner PV, Kloeze H, Dam A, Ward D, Leung N, Brown EEL, Whiteman A, Chiappetta ME, Hunter DB. Mass depopulation of laying hens in whole barns with liquid carbon dioxide: evaluation of welfare impact. Poult Sci 2012; 91:1558-68. [PMID: 22700499 DOI: 10.3382/ps.2012-02139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Appropriate emergency disaster preparedness is a key priority for agricultural agencies to allow effective response to serious avian disease outbreaks. There is a need to develop rapid, humane, and safe depopulation techniques for poultry that are widely applicable across a range of farm settings. Whole barn depopulation with carbon dioxide (CO(2)) has been investigated as a humane and efficient means of killing large numbers of birds in the event of a reportable disease outbreak. It has also been considered as a method for depopulating barns containing end-of-lay hens, particularly when there is limited local slaughter and rendering capacity. Determining the best method of humanely killing large flocks of birds remains problematic and is being investigated by a coordinated international effort. While whole barn depopulation using CO(2) inhalation has been explored, physiologic responses of chickens have not been characterized in field settings and assessment of animal welfare is hampered without this information. In this study, 12 cull laying hens were surgically instrumented with telemetry transmitters to record electroencephalographs, electrocardiographs, body temperature, and activity during 2 large-scale field CO(2) euthanasia trials of end-of-lay hens. The day following surgery, instrumented hens were placed in barns with other birds, barns were sealed, and animals were killed by CO(2) inhalation delivered via a specially designed liquid CO(2) manifold. Instrumented birds were monitored by infrared thermography, and ambient temperature, CO(2), and O(2) concentrations were recorded. Results from these studies indicate that instrumented hens lost consciousness within 2 min of CO(2) levels reaching 18 to 20%. Mild to moderate head shaking, gasping, and 1 to 2 clonic muscle contractions were noted in hens before unconsciousness; however, brain death followed rapidly (<5 min). Evaluation of welfare costs and benefits suggest clear advantages over catching and transporting cull hens for slaughter. The financial costs with this method are greater, however, than those estimated for traditional slaughter techniques. Results of these studies are being used to develop national protocols for whole barn depopulation of hens by CO(2) inhalation.
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Affiliation(s)
- P V Turner
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada.
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