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Zielińska S, Matkowski A, Dydak K, Czerwińska ME, Dziągwa-Becker M, Kucharski M, Wójciak M, Sowa I, Plińska S, Fijałkowski K, Ciecholewska-Juśko D, Broda M, Gorczyca D, Junka A. Bacterial Nanocellulose Fortified with Antimicrobial and Anti-Inflammatory Natural Products from Chelidonium majus Plant Cell Cultures. MATERIALS 2021; 15:ma15010016. [PMID: 35009165 PMCID: PMC8746069 DOI: 10.3390/ma15010016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2021] [Revised: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In this work we developed a bi-functional Bacterial-Nano-Cellulose (BNC) carrier system for cell cultures of Chelidonium majus-a medicinal plant producing antimicrobial compounds. The porous BNC was biosynthesized for 3, 5 or 7 days by the non-pathogenic Komagataeibacter xylinus bacteria and used in three forms: (1) Without removal of K. xylinus cells, (2) partially cleaned up from the remaining K. xylinus cells using water washing and (3) fully purified with NaOH leaving no bacterial cells remains. The suspended C. majus cells were inoculated on the BNC pieces in liquid medium and the functionalized BNC was harvested and subjected to scanning electron microscopy observation and analyzed for the content of C. majus metabolites as well as to antimicrobial assays and tested for potential proinflammatory irritating activity in human neutrophils. The highest content and the most complex composition of pharmacologically active substances was found in 3-day-old, unpurified BNC, which was tested for its bioactivity. The assays based on the IL-1β, IL-8 and TNF-α secretion in an in vitro model showed an anti-inflammatory effect of this particular biomatrix. Moreover, 3-day-old-BNC displayed antimicrobial and antibiofilm activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Candida albicans. The results of the research indicated a possible application of such modified composites, against microbial pathogens, especially in local surface infections, where plant metabolite-enriched BNC may be used as the occlusive dressing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylwia Zielińska
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Division of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Wroclaw Medical University, 50-556 Wroclaw, Poland;
| | - Adam Matkowski
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Division of Pharmaceutical Biology and Botany, Wroclaw Medical University, 50-556 Wroclaw, Poland
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +48-717-840-498
| | - Karolina Dydak
- Pharmaceutical Microbiology and Parasitology, Wroclaw Medical University, 50-556 Wroclaw, Poland; (K.D.); (A.J.)
| | - Monika Ewa Czerwińska
- Department of Biochemistry and Pharmacogenomics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-097 Warszawa, Poland;
- Centre for Preclinical Research, Medical University of Warsaw, 1B Banacha Street, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Magdalena Dziągwa-Becker
- Department of Weed Science and Tillage Systems, Institute of Soil Science and Plant Cultivation State Research Institute, 50-540 Wrocław, Poland; (M.D.-B.); (M.K.)
| | - Mariusz Kucharski
- Department of Weed Science and Tillage Systems, Institute of Soil Science and Plant Cultivation State Research Institute, 50-540 Wrocław, Poland; (M.D.-B.); (M.K.)
| | - Magdalena Wójciak
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Medical University of Lublin, 20-093 Lublin, Poland; (M.W.); (I.S.)
| | - Ireneusz Sowa
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Medical University of Lublin, 20-093 Lublin, Poland; (M.W.); (I.S.)
| | - Stanisława Plińska
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Wroclaw Medical University, 50-556 Wrocław, Poland;
| | - Karol Fijałkowski
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Animal Husbandry, West Pomeranian University of Technology, 70-311 Szczecin, Poland; (K.F.); (D.C.-J.); (M.B.)
| | - Daria Ciecholewska-Juśko
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Animal Husbandry, West Pomeranian University of Technology, 70-311 Szczecin, Poland; (K.F.); (D.C.-J.); (M.B.)
| | - Michał Broda
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Animal Husbandry, West Pomeranian University of Technology, 70-311 Szczecin, Poland; (K.F.); (D.C.-J.); (M.B.)
- Pomeranian-Masurian Potato Breeding Company, 76-024 Strzekęcino, Poland
| | - Damian Gorczyca
- Faculty of Medicine, Lazarski University, 02-662 Warszawa, Poland;
| | - Adam Junka
- Pharmaceutical Microbiology and Parasitology, Wroclaw Medical University, 50-556 Wroclaw, Poland; (K.D.); (A.J.)
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Luo M, Yu P, Ni K, Jin Y, Liu L, Li J, Pan Y, Deng L. Sanguinarine Rapidly Relaxes Rat Airway Smooth Muscle Cells Dependent on TAS2R Signaling. Biol Pharm Bull 2020; 43:1027-1034. [PMID: 32404582 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.b19-00825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Excessive contraction of airway smooth muscle cells (ASMCs) is a hallmark feature of asthma. Intriguing, the activation of bitter taste receptor (TAS2R) in ASMCs can relax ASMCs. However, there is a lack of potent TAS2R agonists that can be used in asthma therapies since those tested agonists cannot relax ASMCs at the dose below a few hundred micromolar. Considering that sanguinarine (SA) is a bitter substance often used in small doses for the treatment of asthma in folk medicine, the present study was to determine the rapid relaxation effect of SA on ASMCs and to reveal the underlying mechanisms associated with TAS2R signaling. Here, cell stiffness, traction force, calcium signaling, cAMP levels, and the mRNA expression were evaluated by using optical magnetic twisting cytometry, traction force microscopy, Fluo-4/AM labeling, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and quantitative (q)RT-PCR, respectively. We found that 0.5 µM SA immediately decreased cell stiffness and traction force, which is comparable with the effect of 5 µM isoproterenol. In addition, 0.5 µM SA immediately increased intracellular free calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i) and decreased the mRNA expression of contractile proteins such as calponin and α-smooth muscle actin after the treatment for 24 h. Furthermore, SA-mediated decrease in cell stiffness/traction force and increase in [Ca2+]i were significantly blunted by inhibiting the TAS2Rs signaling. These findings establish the rapid relaxation effect of SA at low concentration (<1 µM) on cultured ASMCs depending on TAS2R signaling, indicating that SA might be developed as a useful bronchodilator in asthma therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingzhi Luo
- Changzhou Key Laboratory of Respiratory Medical Engineering, Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Health Sciences, Changzhou University
| | - Peili Yu
- Changzhou Key Laboratory of Respiratory Medical Engineering, Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Health Sciences, Changzhou University
| | - Kai Ni
- Changzhou Key Laboratory of Respiratory Medical Engineering, Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Health Sciences, Changzhou University
| | - Yang Jin
- Key Lab of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University
| | - Lei Liu
- Changzhou Key Laboratory of Respiratory Medical Engineering, Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Health Sciences, Changzhou University
| | - Jingjing Li
- Changzhou Key Laboratory of Respiratory Medical Engineering, Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Health Sciences, Changzhou University
| | - Yan Pan
- Changzhou Key Laboratory of Respiratory Medical Engineering, Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Health Sciences, Changzhou University
| | - Linhong Deng
- Changzhou Key Laboratory of Respiratory Medical Engineering, Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Health Sciences, Changzhou University
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Zhang YT, Zhang YL, Chen SX, Yin GH, Yang ZZ, Lee S, Liu CG, Zhao DD, Ma YK, Song FQ, Bennett JW, Yang FS. Proteomics of methyl jasmonate induced defense response in maize leaves against Asian corn borer. BMC Genomics 2015; 16:224. [PMID: 25885025 PMCID: PMC4375847 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-015-1363-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2014] [Accepted: 02/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Jasmonic acid (JA) and methyl jasmonate (MeJA) regulate plant development, resistance to stress, and insect attack by inducing specific gene expression. However, little is known about the mechanism of plant defense against herbivore attack at a protein level. Using a high-resolution 2-D gel, we identified 62 MeJA-responsive proteins and measured protein expression level changes. RESULTS Among these 62 proteins, 43 proteins levels were increased while 11 proteins were decreased. We also found eight proteins uniquely expressed in response to MeJA treatment. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD001793. The proteins identified in this study have important biological functions including photosynthesis and energy related proteins (38.4%), protein folding, degradation and regulated proteins (15.0%), stress and defense regulated proteins (11.7%), and redox-responsive proteins (8.3%). The expression levels of four important genes were determined by qRT-PCR analysis. The expression levels of these proteins did not correlate well with their translation levels. To test the defense functions of the differentially expressed proteins, expression vectors of four protein coding genes were constructed to express in-fusion proteins in E. coli. The expressed proteins were used to feed Ostrinia furnacalis, the Asian corn borer (ACB). Our results demonstrated that the recombinant proteins of pathogenesis-related protein 1 (PR1) and thioredoxin M-type, chloroplastic precursor (TRXM) showed the significant inhibition on the development of larvae and pupae. CONCLUSIONS We found MeJA could not only induce plant defense mechanisms to insects, it also enhanced toxic protein production that potentially can be used for bio-control of ACB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Tong Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Heilongjiang Province, College of Life Sciences, Heilongjiang University, Harbin, 150080, China.
- Majorbio Pharm Technology Co., Ltd., Shanghai, 201203, China.
| | - Yu Liang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Resources of Tropical Crops, Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Tropical Bioscience and Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Haikou, Hainan, 571101, China.
| | - Si Xue Chen
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Heilongjiang Province, College of Life Sciences, Heilongjiang University, Harbin, 150080, China.
- Department of Biology, Genetics Institute, Plant Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, Interdisciplinary Center for Biotechnology Research, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, 32610, USA.
| | - Guo Hua Yin
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Resources of Tropical Crops, Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Tropical Bioscience and Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Haikou, Hainan, 571101, China.
- Department of Plant Biology and Pathology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA.
| | - Ze Zhong Yang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Heilongjiang Province, College of Life Sciences, Heilongjiang University, Harbin, 150080, China.
- Institute of Pesticide Science, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, China.
| | - Samantha Lee
- Department of Plant Biology and Pathology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA.
| | - Chun Guang Liu
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Heilongjiang Province, College of Life Sciences, Heilongjiang University, Harbin, 150080, China.
- Engineering Research Center of Agricultural Microbiology Technology, Ministry of Education, Heilongjiang University, Harbin, 150500, China.
| | - Dan Dan Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Heilongjiang Province, College of Life Sciences, Heilongjiang University, Harbin, 150080, China.
- Engineering Research Center of Agricultural Microbiology Technology, Ministry of Education, Heilongjiang University, Harbin, 150500, China.
| | - Yu Kun Ma
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Heilongjiang Province, College of Life Sciences, Heilongjiang University, Harbin, 150080, China.
- Engineering Research Center of Agricultural Microbiology Technology, Ministry of Education, Heilongjiang University, Harbin, 150500, China.
| | - Fu Qiang Song
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Heilongjiang Province, College of Life Sciences, Heilongjiang University, Harbin, 150080, China.
- Engineering Research Center of Agricultural Microbiology Technology, Ministry of Education, Heilongjiang University, Harbin, 150500, China.
| | - Joan W Bennett
- Department of Plant Biology and Pathology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA.
| | - Feng Shan Yang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Heilongjiang Province, College of Life Sciences, Heilongjiang University, Harbin, 150080, China.
- Engineering Research Center of Agricultural Microbiology Technology, Ministry of Education, Heilongjiang University, Harbin, 150500, China.
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Aragão GF, Carneiro LMV, Rota-Junior AP, Bandeira PN, de Lemos TLG, Viana GSDB. Alterations in brain amino acid metabolism and inhibitory effects on PKC are possibly correlated with anticonvulsant effects of the isomeric mixture of α- and β-amyrin from Protium heptaphyllum. PHARMACEUTICAL BIOLOGY 2015; 53:407-413. [PMID: 25471298 DOI: 10.3109/13880209.2014.923001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT α- and β-Amyrin (AMY) from Protium heptaphyllum (Aubl) March (Burseraceae) is found in Brazil and used in diverse inflammation-related diseases. This species presents a central action, as previously described. OBJECTIVE The objectives were to evaluate the anticonvulsant effect of AMY in mice and to verify the mechanism of action. MATERIAL AND METHODS Seizures were induced by pentylenetetrazole followed by acute or subchronic treatments (5-25 mg/kg, p.o. and i.p.) and determination of brain amino acids (10 and 25 mg/kg, i.p., 7 d). RESULTS In the acute treatment, AMY (10, 25, and 50 mg/kg, p.o.) increased the latency to the first convulsion (FC) by 30, 44, and 40% and time to death (TD) by 36, 52, and 42%, respectively. When administered intraperitoneally, the same doses increased FC by 62, 75, and 73% and TD by 76, 82, and 119%, respectively. Combined with polymixin or staurosporine, AMY (25 mg/kg, i.p.) increased TD by 61 and 63%, respectively, as related to each drug alone. When subchronically administered (25 and 50 mg/kg, i.p.) increased FC by 75 and 101% and TD by 86 and 124%, respectively. AMY increased taurine (116 and 76%) and tyrosine concentrations (135 and 110%) in basal ganglia and hippocampus, respectively, and decreased by 68, 65, and 62% glutamate, aspartate, and GABA in basal ganglia. CONCLUSION Thus, the AMY anticonvulsant activity is related to the GABAergic system and may be linked to the inhibition of the signaling cascade of PKC as well as to alterations in amino acids metabolism.
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Identification of microRNAs by small RNA deep sequencing for synthetic microRNA mimics to control Spodoptera exigua. Gene 2015; 557:215-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2014.12.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2014] [Revised: 12/12/2014] [Accepted: 12/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Lu H, Chen J, Nie X, Liu C, Sun W. IL-2 inhibited the generation of CD4+ memory T cells. Cell Biochem Biophys 2014; 70:1705-11. [PMID: 24989679 DOI: 10.1007/s12013-014-0117-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The survival of T cells at different stages of development is dependent on extrinsic signals. IL-7 is necessary for the development of memory T cells. IL-7 could induce and maintain the differentiation, survival, and proliferation of CD4(+) memory T cells, and the roles of IL-2 and IL-15 in the generation of CD4(+) memory T cells were still unclear. A CD4(+) memory T cells in vitro generated system by adding IL-7. The phenotype of CD4(+) memory T cells was identified by FACS. The cells proliferation was analyzed by CFSE staining. The involved signal pathways were analyzed by Western blot. We found that IL-2, not IL-15, could inhibit CD4(+) memory T cells generation. Western blot showed that IL-7 up-regulated the P-STAT5A expression and down-regulated Bax expression, IL-2 reduced the effect of IL-7. Besides, IL-2-combined IL-7 up-regulated the P-AKT and Foxo3a expression a little. In conclusion, our data revealed the inhibitory role of IL-2 in CD4(+) memory T cells generation and indicated that PI3K/AKT signal pathway was involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongjuan Lu
- Department of Immunology, National Key Laboratory of Medical Immunology and Institute of Immunology, Second Military Medical University, 800 Xiangyin Road, Shanghai, 200433, People's Republic of China
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Jiang J, Wang X, Shan Z, Yang L, Zhou J, Bu Y. Proteomic analysis of hepatic tissue of Cyprinus carpio L. exposed to cyanobacterial blooms in Lake Taihu, China. PLoS One 2014; 9:e88211. [PMID: 24558380 PMCID: PMC3928196 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0088211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2013] [Accepted: 01/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
With the rapid development of industry and agriculture and associated pollution, the cyanobacterial blooms in Lake Taihu have become a major threat to aquatic wildlife and human health. In this study, the ecotoxicological effects of cyanobacterial blooms on cage-cultured carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) in Meiliang Bay of Lake Taihu were investigated. Microcystins (MCs), major cyanobacterial toxins, have been detected in carp cultured at different experimental sites of Meiliang Bay. We observed that the accumulation of MCs in carp was closely associated with several environmental factors, including temperature, pH value, and density of cyanobacterial blooms. The proteomic profile of carp liver exposed to cyanobacterial blooms was analyzed using two-dimensional difference in-gel electrophoresis (2D-DIGE) and mass spectrometry. The toxic effects of cyanobacterial blooms on carp liver were similar to changes caused by MCs. MCs were transported into liver cells and induced the excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). MCs and ROS inhibited protein phosphatase and aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH), directly or indirectly resulting in oxidative stress and disruption of the cytoskeleton. These effects further interfered with metabolic pathways in the liver through the regulation of series of related proteins. The results of this study indicated that cyanobacterial blooms pose a major threat to aquatic wildlife in Meiliang Bay in Lake Taihu. These results provided evidence of the molecular mechanisms underlying liver damage in carp exposed to cyanobacterial blooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinlin Jiang
- Nanjing Institute of Environmental Sciences/Key Laboratory of Pesticide Environmental Assessment and Pollution Control, Ministry of Environmental Protection, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
- * E-mail: (JJ); (XW)
| | - Xiaorong Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
- * E-mail: (JJ); (XW)
| | - Zhengjun Shan
- Nanjing Institute of Environmental Sciences/Key Laboratory of Pesticide Environmental Assessment and Pollution Control, Ministry of Environmental Protection, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
| | - Liuyan Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
| | - Junying Zhou
- Nanjing Institute of Environmental Sciences/Key Laboratory of Pesticide Environmental Assessment and Pollution Control, Ministry of Environmental Protection, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuanqin Bu
- Nanjing Institute of Environmental Sciences/Key Laboratory of Pesticide Environmental Assessment and Pollution Control, Ministry of Environmental Protection, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
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Chen ZF, Zhang H, Wang H, Matsumura K, Wong YH, Ravasi T, Qian PY. Quantitative proteomics study of larval settlement in the Barnacle Balanus amphitrite. PLoS One 2014; 9:e88744. [PMID: 24551147 PMCID: PMC3923807 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0088744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2013] [Accepted: 01/08/2014] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Barnacles are major sessile components of the intertidal areas worldwide, and also one of the most dominant fouling organisms in fouling communities. Larval settlement has a crucial ecological effect not only on the distribution of the barnacle population but also intertidal community structures. However, the molecular mechanisms involved in the transition process from the larval to the juvenile stage remain largely unclear. In this study, we carried out comparative proteomic profiles of stage II nauplii, stage VI nauplii, cyprids, and juveniles of the barnacle Balanus amphitrite using label-free quantitative proteomics, followed by the measurement of the gene expression levels of candidate proteins. More than 700 proteins were identified at each stage; 80 were significantly up-regulated in cyprids and 95 in juveniles vs other stages. Specifically, proteins involved in energy and metabolism, the nervous system and signal transduction were significantly up-regulated in cyprids, whereas proteins involved in cytoskeletal remodeling, transcription and translation, cell proliferation and differentiation, and biomineralization were up-regulated in juveniles, consistent with changes associated with larval metamorphosis and tissue remodeling in juveniles. These findings provided molecular evidence for the morphological, physiological and biological changes that occur during the transition process from the larval to the juvenile stages in B. amphitrite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhang-Fan Chen
- KAUST Global Collaborative Research Program, Division of Life Science, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Huoming Zhang
- Bioscience Core Laboratory, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Hao Wang
- KAUST Global Collaborative Research Program, Division of Life Science, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Kiyotaka Matsumura
- KAUST Global Collaborative Research Program, Division of Life Science, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Yue Him Wong
- KAUST Global Collaborative Research Program, Division of Life Science, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Timothy Ravasi
- Integrative Systems Biology Lab, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Pei-Yuan Qian
- KAUST Global Collaborative Research Program, Division of Life Science, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong SAR, China
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