1
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Koiwa D, Ohira M, Hiramatsu T, Abe H, Kawamoto T, Ishihara Y, Ignacio B, Mansour N, Romoff T. Rapid and efficient syntheses of tryptophans using a continuous-flow quaternization-substitution reaction of gramines with a chiral nucleophilic glycine equivalent. Org Biomol Chem 2022; 20:8331-8340. [PMID: 36250233 DOI: 10.1039/d2ob01682f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
A continuous-flow quaternization reaction of gramines with MeI (<1 min) followed by a substitution reaction with a chiral nucleophilic glycine-derived Ni-complex (S)-2 (<1 min) has successfully been developed to afford the corresponding alkylated Ni-complexes 3 in good yields with excellent diastereoselectivity, based on the results of a one-pot quaternization-substitution reaction of gramines with (S)-2 in a batch process. The continuous-flow process allowed the safe and efficient scale-up synthesis of 3j (84% yield, 99% de, 540 g h-1) to give 7-azatryptophan derivative (S)-4j readily by an acid-catalyzed hydrolysis reaction followed by protection with an Fmoc group. The present method for the rapid and efficient syntheses of enantiopure unnatural tryptophan derivatives from various gramines and (S)-2 will be useful to further promote peptide and protein drug discovery and development research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daichi Koiwa
- Research & Development Division, Hamari Chemicals, Ltd, 1-19-40, Nankokita, Suminoe-ku, Osaka, 559-0034, Japan.
| | - Masayuki Ohira
- Research & Development Division, Hamari Chemicals, Ltd, 1-19-40, Nankokita, Suminoe-ku, Osaka, 559-0034, Japan.
| | - Takahiro Hiramatsu
- Research & Development Division, Hamari Chemicals, Ltd, 1-19-40, Nankokita, Suminoe-ku, Osaka, 559-0034, Japan.
| | - Hidenori Abe
- Research & Development Division, Hamari Chemicals, Ltd, 1-19-40, Nankokita, Suminoe-ku, Osaka, 559-0034, Japan.
| | - Tetsuji Kawamoto
- Research & Development Division, Hamari Chemicals, Ltd, 1-19-40, Nankokita, Suminoe-ku, Osaka, 559-0034, Japan.
| | - Yuji Ishihara
- Research & Development Division, Hamari Chemicals, Ltd, 1-19-40, Nankokita, Suminoe-ku, Osaka, 559-0034, Japan.
| | - Bernardo Ignacio
- Hamari Chemicals USA, Inc., 11558 Sorrento Valley Rd Suite 3, San Diego, California, 92121, USA
| | - Noel Mansour
- Hamari Chemicals USA, Inc., 11558 Sorrento Valley Rd Suite 3, San Diego, California, 92121, USA
| | - Todd Romoff
- Hamari Chemicals USA, Inc., 11558 Sorrento Valley Rd Suite 3, San Diego, California, 92121, USA
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2
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González S, Ad O, Shah B, Zhang Z, Zhang X, Chatterjee A, Schepartz A. Genetic Code Expansion in the Engineered Organism Vmax X2: High Yield and Exceptional Fidelity. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2021; 7:1500-1507. [PMID: 34584951 PMCID: PMC8461772 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.1c00499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2021] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
We report that the recently introduced commercial strain of Vibrio natriegens (Vmax X2) supports robust unnatural amino acid mutagenesis, generating exceptional yields of soluble protein containing up to 5 noncanonical α-amino acids (ncAA). The isolated yields of ncAA-containing superfolder green fluorescent protein (sfGFP) expressed in Vmax X2 are up to 25-fold higher than those achieved using commercial expression strains (Top10 and BL21) and more than 10-fold higher than those achieved using two different genomically recodedEscherichia colistrains that lack endogenous UAG stop codons and release factor 1 and have been optimized for improved fitness and preferred growth temperature (C321.ΔA.opt and C321.ΔA.exp). In addition to higher yields of soluble protein, Vmax X2 cells also generate proteins with significantly lower levels of misincorporated natural α-amino acids at the UAG-programmed position, especially in cases where the ncAA is a moderate substrate for the chosen orthogonal aminoacyl tRNA synthetase (aaRS). This increase in fidelity implies that the use of Vmax X2 cells as the expression host can obviate the need for time-consuming directed evolution experiments to improve the selectivity of an aaRS toward highly desired but suboptimal ncAA substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Omer Ad
- Department
of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, United States
| | - Bhavana Shah
- Process
Development, Attribute Sciences, Amgen Inc., Thousand Oaks, California 91320, United States
| | - Zhongqi Zhang
- Process
Development, Attribute Sciences, Amgen Inc., Thousand Oaks, California 91320, United States
| | - Xizi Zhang
- Department
of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Abhishek Chatterjee
- Department
of Chemistry, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts 02467, United States
| | - Alanna Schepartz
- Department
of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Department
of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University
of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- California
Institute for Quantitative Biosciences (QB3), University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
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3
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Pagar AD, Patil MD, Flood DT, Yoo TH, Dawson PE, Yun H. Recent Advances in Biocatalysis with Chemical Modification and Expanded Amino Acid Alphabet. Chem Rev 2021; 121:6173-6245. [PMID: 33886302 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c01201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The two main strategies for enzyme engineering, directed evolution and rational design, have found widespread applications in improving the intrinsic activities of proteins. Although numerous advances have been achieved using these ground-breaking methods, the limited chemical diversity of the biopolymers, restricted to the 20 canonical amino acids, hampers creation of novel enzymes that Nature has never made thus far. To address this, much research has been devoted to expanding the protein sequence space via chemical modifications and/or incorporation of noncanonical amino acids (ncAAs). This review provides a balanced discussion and critical evaluation of the applications, recent advances, and technical breakthroughs in biocatalysis for three approaches: (i) chemical modification of cAAs, (ii) incorporation of ncAAs, and (iii) chemical modification of incorporated ncAAs. Furthermore, the applications of these approaches and the result on the functional properties and mechanistic study of the enzymes are extensively reviewed. We also discuss the design of artificial enzymes and directed evolution strategies for enzymes with ncAAs incorporated. Finally, we discuss the current challenges and future perspectives for biocatalysis using the expanded amino acid alphabet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amol D Pagar
- Department of Systems Biotechnology, Konkuk University, 120 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul 05029, Korea
| | - Mahesh D Patil
- Department of Systems Biotechnology, Konkuk University, 120 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul 05029, Korea
| | - Dillon T Flood
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Tae Hyeon Yoo
- Department of Molecular Science and Technology, Ajou University, 206 World cup-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon 16499, Korea
| | - Philip E Dawson
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Hyungdon Yun
- Department of Systems Biotechnology, Konkuk University, 120 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul 05029, Korea
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4
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Nieto-Domínguez M, Nikel PI. Intersecting Xenobiology and Neometabolism To Bring Novel Chemistries to Life. Chembiochem 2020; 21:2551-2571. [PMID: 32274875 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202000091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Revised: 04/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The diversity of life relies on a handful of chemical elements (carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus) as part of essential building blocks; some other atoms are needed to a lesser extent, but most of the remaining elements are excluded from biology. This circumstance limits the scope of biochemical reactions in extant metabolism - yet it offers a phenomenal playground for synthetic biology. Xenobiology aims to bring novel bricks to life that could be exploited for (xeno)metabolite synthesis. In particular, the assembly of novel pathways engineered to handle nonbiological elements (neometabolism) will broaden chemical space beyond the reach of natural evolution. In this review, xeno-elements that could be blended into nature's biosynthetic portfolio are discussed together with their physicochemical properties and tools and strategies to incorporate them into biochemistry. We argue that current bioproduction methods can be revolutionized by bridging xenobiology and neometabolism for the synthesis of new-to-nature molecules, such as organohalides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Nieto-Domínguez
- The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, 2800, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Pablo I Nikel
- The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, 2800, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
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5
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Genetically encoded photochemical covalent crosslinking within the Hcp-1 self-assembling bacterial secretion machinery. Amino Acids 2018; 50:641-645. [DOI: 10.1007/s00726-017-2535-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2017] [Accepted: 12/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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6
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Monk JW, Leonard SP, Brown CW, Hammerling MJ, Mortensen C, Gutierrez AE, Shin NY, Watkins E, Mishler DM, Barrick JE. Rapid and Inexpensive Evaluation of Nonstandard Amino Acid Incorporation in Escherichia coli. ACS Synth Biol 2017; 6:45-54. [PMID: 27648665 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.6b00192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
By introducing engineered tRNA and aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase pairs into an organism, its genetic code can be expanded to incorporate nonstandard amino acids (nsAAs). The performance of these orthogonal translation systems (OTSs) varies greatly, however, with respect to the efficiency and accuracy of decoding a reassigned codon as the nsAA. To enable rapid and systematic comparisons of these critical parameters, we developed a toolkit for characterizing any Escherichia coli OTS that reassigns the amber stop codon (TAG). It assesses OTS performance by comparing how the fluorescence of strains carrying plasmids encoding a fused RFP-GFP reading frame, either with or without an intervening TAG codon, depends on the presence of the nsAA. We used this kit to (1) examine nsAA incorporation by seven different OTSs, (2) optimize nsAA concentration in growth media, (3) define the polyspecificity of an OTS, and (4) characterize evolved variants of amberless E. coli with improved growth rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan W. Monk
- Center for Systems and Synthetic
Biology, Department of Molecular Biosciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Sean P. Leonard
- Center for Systems and Synthetic
Biology, Department of Molecular Biosciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Colin W. Brown
- Center for Systems and Synthetic
Biology, Department of Molecular Biosciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Michael J. Hammerling
- Center for Systems and Synthetic
Biology, Department of Molecular Biosciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Catherine Mortensen
- Center for Systems and Synthetic
Biology, Department of Molecular Biosciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Alejandro E. Gutierrez
- Center for Systems and Synthetic
Biology, Department of Molecular Biosciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Nathan Y. Shin
- Center for Systems and Synthetic
Biology, Department of Molecular Biosciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Ella Watkins
- Center for Systems and Synthetic
Biology, Department of Molecular Biosciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Dennis M. Mishler
- Center for Systems and Synthetic
Biology, Department of Molecular Biosciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Jeffrey E. Barrick
- Center for Systems and Synthetic
Biology, Department of Molecular Biosciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
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7
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Gan Q, Lehman BP, Bobik TA, Fan C. Expanding the genetic code of Salmonella with non-canonical amino acids. Sci Rep 2016; 6:39920. [PMID: 28008993 PMCID: PMC5180212 DOI: 10.1038/srep39920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2016] [Accepted: 11/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The diversity of non-canonical amino acids (ncAAs) endows proteins with new features for a variety of biological studies and biotechnological applications. The genetic code expansion strategy, which co-translationally incorporates ncAAs into specific sites of target proteins, has been applied in many organisms. However, there have been only few studies on pathogens using genetic code expansion. Here, we introduce this technique into the human pathogen Salmonella by incorporating p-azido-phenylalanine, benzoyl-phenylalanine, acetyl-lysine, and phosphoserine into selected Salmonella proteins including a microcompartment shell protein (PduA), a type III secretion effector protein (SteA), and a metabolic enzyme (malate dehydrogenase), and demonstrate practical applications of genetic code expansion in protein labeling, photocrosslinking, and post-translational modification studies in Salmonella. This work will provide powerful tools for a wide range of studies on Salmonella.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qinglei Gan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, 72701, USA
| | - Brent P Lehman
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, 50011, USA
| | - Thomas A Bobik
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, 50011, USA
| | - Chenguang Fan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, 72701, USA
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8
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Odar C, Winkler M, Wiltschi B. Fluoro amino acids: A rarity in nature, yet a prospect for protein engineering. Biotechnol J 2015; 10:427-46. [DOI: 10.1002/biot.201400587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2014] [Revised: 12/08/2014] [Accepted: 01/09/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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9
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Reddington SC, Baldwin AJ, Thompson R, Brancale A, Tippmann EM, Jones DD. Directed evolution of GFP with non-natural amino acids identifies residues for augmenting and photoswitching fluorescence. Chem Sci 2015; 6:1159-1166. [PMID: 29560203 PMCID: PMC5811120 DOI: 10.1039/c4sc02827a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2014] [Accepted: 10/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Genetic code reprogramming allows proteins to sample new chemistry through the defined and targeted introduction of non-natural amino acids (nAAs). Many useful nAAs are derivatives of the natural aromatic amino acid tyrosine, with the para OH group replaced with useful but often bulkier substituents. Extending residue sampling by directed evolution identified positions in Green Fluorescent Protein tolerant to aromatic nAAs, including identification of novel sites that modulate fluorescence. Replacement of the buried L44 residue by photosensitive p-azidophenylalanine (azF) conferred environmentally sensitive photoswitching. In silico modelling of the L44azF dark state provided an insight into the mechanism of action through modulation of the hydrogen bonding network surrounding the chromophore. Targeted mutagenesis of T203 with aromatic nAAs to introduce π-stacking with the chromophore successfully generated red shifted versions of GFP. Incorporation of azF at residue 203 conferred high photosensitivity on sfGFP with even ambient light mediating a functional switch. Thus, engineering proteins with non-natural aromatic amino acids by surveying a wide residue set can introduce new and beneficial properties into a protein through the sampling of non-intuitive mutations. Coupled with retrospective in silico modelling, this will facilitate both our understanding of the impact of nAAs on protein structure and function, and future design endeavours.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel C Reddington
- School of Biosciences , Cardiff University , Cardiff CF10 3AT , UK . ; Tel: +44 (0)29 20874290
- School of Chemistry , Cardiff University , Cardiff , UK
| | - Amy J Baldwin
- School of Biosciences , Cardiff University , Cardiff CF10 3AT , UK . ; Tel: +44 (0)29 20874290
- School of Chemistry , Cardiff University , Cardiff , UK
| | - Rebecca Thompson
- School of Biosciences , Cardiff University , Cardiff CF10 3AT , UK . ; Tel: +44 (0)29 20874290
| | - Andrea Brancale
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences , Cardiff University , Cardiff , UK
| | | | - D Dafydd Jones
- School of Biosciences , Cardiff University , Cardiff CF10 3AT , UK . ; Tel: +44 (0)29 20874290
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10
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Biava H, Budisa N. Evolution of fluorinated enzymes: An emerging trend for biocatalyst stabilization. Eng Life Sci 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/elsc.201300049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Hernan Biava
- Department of Biocatalysis, Institute of Chemistry Berlin Institute of Technology/TU Berlin Berlin Germany
| | - Nediljko Budisa
- Department of Biocatalysis, Institute of Chemistry Berlin Institute of Technology/TU Berlin Berlin Germany
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11
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Bohlke N, Budisa N. Sense codon emancipation for proteome-wide incorporation of noncanonical amino acids: rare isoleucine codon AUA as a target for genetic code expansion. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2014; 351:133-44. [PMID: 24433543 PMCID: PMC4237120 DOI: 10.1111/1574-6968.12371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2013] [Revised: 12/20/2013] [Accepted: 12/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the major challenges in contemporary synthetic biology is to find a route to engineer synthetic organisms with altered chemical constitution. In terms of core reaction types, nature uses an astonishingly limited repertoire of chemistries when compared with the exceptionally rich and diverse methods of organic chemistry. In this context, the most promising route to change and expand the fundamental chemistry of life is the inclusion of amino acid building blocks beyond the canonical 20 (i.e. expanding the genetic code). This strategy would allow the transfer of numerous chemical functionalities and reactions from the synthetic laboratory into the cellular environment. Due to limitations in terms of both efficiency and practical applicability, state-of-the-art nonsense suppression- or frameshift suppression-based methods are less suitable for such engineering. Consequently, we set out to achieve this goal by sense codon emancipation, that is, liberation from its natural decoding function – a prerequisite for the reassignment of degenerate sense codons to a new 21st amino acid. We have achieved this by redesigning of several features of the post-transcriptional modification machinery which are directly involved in the decoding process. In particular, we report first steps towards the reassignment of 5797 AUA isoleucine codons in Escherichia coli using efficient tools for tRNA nucleotide modification pathway engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Bohlke
- Department of Chemistry, TU Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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12
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Kawaguchi J, Maejima K, Kuroiwa H, Taki M. Kinetic analysis of the leucyl/phenylalanyl-tRNA-protein transferase with acceptor peptides possessing different N-terminal penultimate residues. FEBS Open Bio 2013; 3:252-5. [PMID: 23905007 PMCID: PMC3722611 DOI: 10.1016/j.fob.2013.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2013] [Revised: 06/05/2013] [Accepted: 06/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The introduction of non-natural amino acids at the N-terminus of peptides/proteins using leucyl/phenylalanyl-tRNA-protein transferase (L/F-transferase) is a useful technique for protein engineering. To accelerate the chemoenzymatic reaction, here we systematically optimized the N-terminal penultimate residue of the acceptor peptide. Positively charged, small, or hydrophilic amino acids at this position show positive effects for the reaction. Kinetic analysis of peptides possessing different penultimate residues suggests that the side chain of the residue affects peptide-binding affinity towards the L/F-transferase. These findings also provide biological insight into the effect of the penultimate amino acid on substrate specificity of natural proteins to be degraded via the N-end rule pathway. A systematic kinetic analysis of L/F-transferase with different acceptor peptides. L/F-transferase discriminates the N-terminal penultimate residue of substrate peptides. The side chain of this residue affects the peptide binding affinity for L/F-transferase. Ser or Arg is this position optimizes introduction of non-natural amino acids into peptides The N-terminal penultimate residue of a protein may affect its stability in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Kawaguchi
- Department of Engineering Science, Bioscience and Technology Program, The Graduate School of Informatics and Engineering, The University of Electro-Communications (UEC), 7-5-1 Chofugaoka, Chofu, Tokyo 182-8585, Japan
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13
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Recent advances in genetic code engineering in Escherichia coli. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2012; 23:751-7. [PMID: 22237016 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2011.12.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2011] [Accepted: 12/20/2011] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The expansion of the genetic code is gradually becoming a core discipline in Synthetic Biology. It offers the best possible platform for the transfer of numerous chemical reactions and processes from the chemical synthetic laboratory into the biochemistry of living cells. The incorporation of biologically occurring or chemically synthesized non-canonical amino acids into recombinant proteins and even proteomes via reprogrammed protein translation is in the heart of these efforts. Orthogonal pairs consisting of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase and its cognate tRNA proved to be a general tool for the assignment of certain codons of the genetic code with a maximum degree of chemical liberty. Here, we highlight recent developments that should provide a solid basis for the development of generalist tools enabling a controlled variation of chemical composition in proteins and even proteomes. This will take place in the frame of a greatly expanded genetic code with emancipated codons liberated from the current function or with totally new coding units.
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14
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Teramoto H, Kojima K, Kajiwara H, Ishibashi J. Expansion of the amino acid repertoire in protein biosynthesis in silkworm cells. Chembiochem 2012; 13:61-5. [PMID: 22113829 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201100624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2011] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hidetoshi Teramoto
- Genetically Modified Organism Research Center, National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan.
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