A successful change of circumstance: a transition state for membrane protein folding

From covalent transition states in chemistry to noncovalent in biology: from β- to Φ-value analysis of protein folding

Solving the mechanism of a chemical reaction requires determining the structures of all the ground states on the pathway and the elusive transition states linking them. 2024 is the centenary of Brønsted's landmark paper that introduced the β-value and structure-activity studies as the only experimental means to infer the structures of transition states. It involves making systematic small changes in the covalent structure of the reactants and analysing changes in activation and equilibrium-free energies. Protein engineering was introduced for an analogous procedure, Φ-value analysis, to analyse the noncovalent interactions in proteins central to biological chemistry. The methodology was developed first by analysing noncovalent interactions in transition states in enzyme catalysis. The mature procedure was then applied to study transition states in the pathway of protein folding - 'part (b) of the protein folding problem'. This review describes the development of Φ-value analysis of transition states and compares and contrasts the interpretation of β- and Φ-values and their limitations. Φ-analysis afforded the first description of transition states in protein folding at the level of individual residues. It revealed the nucleation-condensation folding mechanism of protein domains with the transition state as an expanded, distorted native structure, containing little fully formed secondary structure but many weak tertiary interactions. A spectrum of transition states with various degrees of structural polarisation was then uncovered that spanned from nucleation-condensation to the framework mechanism of fully formed secondary structure. Φ-analysis revealed how movement of the expanded transition state on an energy landscape accommodates the transition from framework to nucleation-condensation mechanisms with a malleability of structure as a unifying feature of folding mechanisms. Such movement follows the rubric of analysis of classical covalent chemical mechanisms that began with Brønsted. Φ-values are used to benchmark computer simulation, and Φ and simulation combine to describe folding pathways at atomic resolution.

Folding speeds of helical membrane proteins

Membrane proteins play key roles in human health, contributing to cellular signaling, ATP synthesis, immunity, and metabolite transport. Protein folding is the pivotal early step for their proper functioning. Understanding how this class of proteins adopts their native folds could potentially aid in drug design and therapeutic interventions for misfolding diseases. It is an essential piece in the whole puzzle to untangle their kinetic complexities, such as how rapid membrane proteins fold, how their folding speeds are influenced by changing conditions, and what mechanisms are at play. This review explores the folding speed aspect of multipass α-helical membrane proteins, encompassing plausible folding scenarios based on the timing and stability of helix packing interactions, methods for characterizing the folding time scales, relevant folding steps and caveats for interpretation, and potential implications. The review also highlights the recent estimation of the so-called folding speed limit of helical membrane proteins and discusses its consequent impact on the current picture of folding energy landscapes.

Detergent-free Lipodisq Nanoparticles Facilitate High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry of Folded Integral Membrane Proteins

Integral membrane proteins pose considerable challenges to mass spectrometry (MS) owing to the complexity and diversity of the components in their native environment. Here, we use native MS to study the post-translational maturation of bacteriorhodopsin (bR) and archaerhodopsin-3 (AR3), using both octyl-glucoside detergent micelles and lipid-based nanoparticles. A lower collision energy was required to obtain well-resolved spectra for proteins in styrene-maleic acid copolymer (SMA) Lipodisqs than in membrane scaffold protein (MSP) Nanodiscs. By comparing spectra of membrane proteins prepared using the different membrane mimetics, we found that SMA may favor selective solubilization of correctly folded proteins and better preserve native lipid interactions than other membrane mimetics. Our spectra reveal the correlation between the post-translation modifications (PTMs), lipid-interactions, and protein-folding states of bR, providing insights into the process of maturation of the photoreceptor proteins.

Reversible Unfolding of Rhomboid Intramembrane Proteases

Denaturant-induced unfolding of helical membrane proteins provides insights into their mechanism of folding and domain organization, which take place in the chemically heterogeneous, anisotropic environment of a lipid membrane. Rhomboid proteases are intramembrane proteases that play key roles in various diseases. Crystal structures have revealed a compact helical bundle with a buried active site, which requires conformational changes for the cleavage of transmembrane substrates. A dimeric form of the rhomboid protease has been shown to be important for activity. In this study, we examine the mechanism of refolding for two distinct rhomboids to gain insight into their secondary structure-activity relationships. Although helicity is largely abolished in the unfolded states of both proteins, unfolding is completely reversible for HiGlpG but only partially reversible for PsAarA. Refolding of both proteins results in reassociation of the dimer, with a 90% regain of catalytic activity for HiGlpG but only a 70% regain for PsAarA. For both proteins, a broad, gradual transition from the native, folded state to the denatured, partly unfolded state was revealed with the aid of circular dichroism spectroscopy as a function of denaturant concentration, thus arguing against a classical two-state model as found for many globular soluble proteins. Thermal denaturation has irreversible destabilizing effects on both proteins, yet reveals important functional details regarding substrate accessibility to the buried active site. This concerted biophysical and functional analysis demonstrates that HiGlpG, with a simple six-transmembrane-segment organization, is more robust than PsAarA, which has seven predicted transmembrane segments, thus rendering HiGlpG amenable to in vitro studies of membrane-protein folding.

Identification of Specific Effect of Chloride on the Spectral Properties and Structural Stability of Multiple Extracellular Glutamic Acid Mutants of Bacteriorhodopsin

In the present work we combine spectroscopic, DSC and computational approaches to examine the multiple extracellular Glu mutants E204Q/E194Q, E204Q/E194Q/E9Q and E204Q/E194Q/E9Q/E74Q of bacteriorhodopsin by varying solvent ionic strength and composition. Absorption spectroscopy data reveal that the absorption maxima of multiple EC Glu mutants can be tuned by the chloride concentration in the solution. Visible Circular dichroism spectra imply that the specific binding of Cl- can modulate weakened exciton chromophore coupling and reestablish wild type-like bilobe spectral features of the mutants. The DSC data display reappearance of the reversible thermal transition, higher Tm of denaturation and an increase in the enthalpy of unfolding of the mutants in 1 M KCl solutions. Molecular dynamics simulations indicate high affinity binding of Cl- to Arg82 and to Gln204 and Gln194 residues in the mutants. Analysis of the experimental data suggests that simultaneous elimination of the negatively charged side chain of Glu194 and Glu204 is the major cause for mutants' alterations. Specific Cl- binding efficiently coordinates distorted hydrogen bonding interactions of the EC region and reconstitutes the conformation and structure stability of mutated bR in WT-like fashion.

Early folding events during light harvesting complex II assembly in vitro monitored by pulsed electron paramagnetic resonance

Efficient energy transfer in the major light harvesting complex II (LHCII) of green plants is facilitated by the precise alignment of pigments due to the protein matrix they are bound to. Much is known about the import of the LHCII apoprotein into the chloroplast via the TOC/TIC system and its targeting to the thylakoid membrane but information is sparse about when and where the pigments are bound and how this is coordinated with protein folding. In vitro, the LHCII apoprotein spontaneously folds and binds its pigments if the detergent-solubilized protein is combined with a mixture of chlorophylls a and b and carotenoids. In the present work, we employed this approach to study apoprotein folding and pigment binding in a time-resolved manner by using pulsed electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR). Intra-molecular distances were measured before folding, after 255 ms and 40 s folding time in the absence of cryoprotectant, and in the fully folded and assembled LHCII. In accordance with earlier results, the most of the folding of the three membrane-spanning alpha helices precedes their apposition into the final tertiary structure. However, their formation follows different kinetics, partially extending into the final phase of LHCII formation during which much of the condensation of the pigment-protein structure occurs, presumably governed by the binding of chlorophyll b. A rough timetable is proposed to sort partial events into the LHCII formation process.

Folding of newly translated membrane protein CCR5 is assisted by the chaperonin GroEL-GroES

The in vitro folding of newly translated human CC chemokine receptor type 5 (CCR5), which belongs to the physiologically important family of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), has been studied in a cell-free system supplemented with the surfactant Brij-35. The freshly synthesized CCR5 can spontaneously fold into its biologically active state but only slowly and inefficiently. However, on addition of the GroEL-GroES molecular chaperone system, the folding of the nascent CCR5 was significantly enhanced, as was the structural stability and functional expression of the soluble form of CCR5. The chaperonin GroEL was partially effective on its own, but for maximum efficiency both the GroEL and its GroES lid were necessary. These results are direct evidence for chaperone-assisted membrane protein folding and therefore demonstrate that GroEL-GroES may be implicated in the folding of membrane proteins.

Mechanistic studies of the biogenesis and folding of outer membrane proteins in vitro and in vivo: what have we learned to date?

Research into the mechanisms by which proteins fold into their native structures has been on-going since the work of Anfinsen in the 1960s. Since that time, the folding mechanisms of small, water-soluble proteins have been well characterised. By contrast, progress in understanding the biogenesis and folding mechanisms of integral membrane proteins has lagged significantly because of the need to create a membrane mimetic environment for folding studies in vitro and the difficulties in finding suitable conditions in which reversible folding can be achieved. Improved knowledge of the factors that promote membrane protein folding and disfavour aggregation now allows studies of folding into lipid bilayers in vitro to be performed. Consequently, mechanistic details and structural information about membrane protein folding are now emerging at an ever increasing pace. Using the panoply of methods developed for studies of the folding of water-soluble proteins. This review summarises current knowledge of the mechanisms of outer membrane protein biogenesis and folding into lipid bilayers in vivo and in vitro and discusses the experimental techniques utilised to gain this information. The emerging knowledge is beginning to allow comparisons to be made between the folding of membrane proteins with current understanding of the mechanisms of folding of water-soluble proteins.

Targeting acidity in diseased tissues: mechanism and applications of the membrane-inserting peptide, pHLIP

pHLIPs are a family of soluble ∼36 amino acid peptides, which bind to membrane surfaces. If the environment is acidic, a pHLIP folds and inserts across the membrane to form a stable transmembrane helix, thus preferentially locating itself in acidic tissues. Since tumors and other disease tissues are acidic, pHLIPs' low-pH targeting behavior leads to applications as carriers for diagnostic and surgical imaging agents. The energy of membrane insertion can also be used to promote the insertion of modestly polar, normally cell-impermeable cargos across the cell membrane into the cytosol of targeted cells, leading to applications in tumor-targeted delivery of therapeutic molecules. We review the biochemical and biophysical basis of pHLIPs' unique properties, diagnostic and therapeutic applications, and the principles upon which translational applications are being developed.

Folding and stability of integral membrane proteins in amphipols

Amphipols (APols) are a family of amphipathic polymers designed to keep transmembrane proteins (TMPs) soluble in aqueous solutions in the absence of detergent. APols have proven remarkably efficient at (i) stabilizing TMPs, as compared to detergent solutions, and (ii) folding them from a denatured state to a native, functional one. The underlying physical-chemical mechanisms are discussed.

Predictive energy landscapes for folding α-helical transmembrane proteins

We explore the hypothesis that the folding landscapes of membrane proteins are funneled once the proteins' topology within the membrane is established. We extend a protein folding model, the associative memory, water-mediated, structure, and energy model (AWSEM) by adding an implicit membrane potential and reoptimizing the force field to account for the differing nature of the interactions that stabilize proteins within lipid membranes, yielding a model that we call AWSEM-membrane. Once the protein topology is set in the membrane, hydrophobic attractions play a lesser role in finding the native structure, whereas polar-polar attractions are more important than for globular proteins. We examine both the quality of predictions made with AWSEM-membrane when accurate knowledge of the topology and secondary structure is available and the quality of predictions made without such knowledge, instead using bioinformatically inferred topology and secondary structure based on sequence alone. When no major errors are made by the bioinformatic methods used to assign the topology of the transmembrane helices, these two types of structure predictions yield roughly equivalent quality structures. Although the predictive energy landscape is transferable and not structure based, within the correct topological sector we find the landscape is indeed very funneled: Thermodynamic landscape analysis indicates that both the total potential energy and the contact energy decrease as native contacts are formed. Nevertheless the near symmetry of different helical packings with respect to native contact formation can result in multiple packings with nearly equal thermodynamic occupancy, especially at temperatures just below collapse.

Folding of Aquaporin 1: multiple evidence that helix 3 can shift out of the membrane core

The folding of most integral membrane proteins follows a two-step process: initially, individual transmembrane helices are inserted into the membrane by the Sec translocon. Thereafter, these helices fold to shape the final conformation of the protein. However, for some proteins, including Aquaporin 1 (AQP1), the folding appears to follow a more complicated path. AQP1 has been reported to first insert as a four-helical intermediate, where helix 2 and 4 are not inserted into the membrane. In a second step, this intermediate is folded into a six-helical topology. During this process, the orientation of the third helix is inverted. Here, we propose a mechanism for how this reorientation could be initiated: first, helix 3 slides out from the membrane core resulting in that the preceding loop enters the membrane. The final conformation could then be formed as helix 2, 3, and 4 are inserted into the membrane and the reentrant regions come together. We find support for the first step in this process by showing that the loop preceding helix 3 can insert into the membrane. Further, hydrophobicity curves, experimentally measured insertion efficiencies and MD-simulations suggest that the barrier between these two hydrophobic regions is relatively low, supporting the idea that helix 3 can slide out of the membrane core, initiating the rearrangement process.

Retinal proteins as model systems for membrane protein folding

Experimental folding studies of membrane proteins are more challenging than water-soluble proteins because of the higher hydrophobicity content of membrane embedded sequences and the need to provide a hydrophobic milieu for the transmembrane regions. The first challenge is their denaturation: due to the thermodynamic instability of polar groups in the membrane, secondary structures in membrane proteins are more difficult to disrupt than in soluble proteins. The second challenge is to refold from the denatured states. Successful refolding of membrane proteins has almost always been from very subtly denatured states. Therefore, it can be useful to analyze membrane protein folding using computational methods, and we will provide results obtained with simulated unfolding of membrane protein structures using the Floppy Inclusions and Rigid Substructure Topography (FIRST) method. Computational methods have the advantage that they allow a direct comparison between diverse membrane proteins. We will review here both, experimental and FIRST studies of the retinal binding proteins bacteriorhodopsin and mammalian rhodopsin, and discuss the extension of the findings to deriving hypotheses on the mechanisms of folding of membrane proteins in general. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Retinal Proteins-You can teach an old dog new tricks.

Curvature forces in membrane lipid-protein interactions

Membrane biochemists are becoming increasingly aware of the role of lipid-protein interactions in diverse cellular functions. This review describes how conformational changes in membrane proteins, involving folding, stability, and membrane shape transitions, potentially involve elastic remodeling of the lipid bilayer. Evidence suggests that membrane lipids affect proteins through interactions of a relatively long-range nature, extending beyond a single annulus of next-neighbor boundary lipids. It is assumed the distance scale of the forces is large compared to the molecular range of action. Application of the theory of elasticity to flexible soft surfaces derives from classical physics and explains the polymorphism of both detergents and membrane phospholipids. A flexible surface model (FSM) describes the balance of curvature and hydrophobic forces in lipid-protein interactions. Chemically nonspecific properties of the lipid bilayer modulate the conformational energetics of membrane proteins. The new biomembrane model challenges the standard model (the fluid mosaic model) found in biochemistry texts. The idea of a curvature force field based on data first introduced for rhodopsin gives a bridge between theory and experiment. Influences of bilayer thickness, nonlamellar-forming lipids, detergents, and osmotic stress are all explained by the FSM. An increased awareness of curvature forces suggests that research will accelerate as structural biology becomes more closely entwined with the physical chemistry of lipids in explaining membrane structure and function.