Structural insights into the regulation of aromatic amino acid hydroxylation

Preparation and Characterization of Hydroxylated Recombinant Collagen by Incorporating Proline and Hydroxyproline in Proline-Deficient Escherichia coli

Collagen possesses distinctive chemical properties and biological functions due to its unique triple helix structure. However, recombinant collagen expressed in Escherichia coli without post-translational modifications such as hydroxylation lacks full function since hydroxylation is considered to be critical to the stability of the collagen triple-helix at body temperature. Here, a proline-deficient E. coli strain was constructed and employed to prepare hydroxylated recombinant collagens by incorporating proline (Pro) and hydroxyproline (Hyp) from the culture medium. By controlling the ratio of Pro to Hyp in the culture medium, collagen with different degrees of hydroxylation (0-88%) can be obtained. When the ratio of Pro and Hyp was adjusted to 12:8 mM, the proline hydroxylation rate of recombinant human collagen (rhCol, 55 kDa) ranged from 40-50%, which was also the degree of natural collagen. After proline hydroxylation, both the thermal stability and cell binding of rhCol were significantly enhanced. Notably, when the hydroxylation rate approached that of native human collagen (40-50%), the improvements were most pronounced. Moreover, the cell binding of rhCol with a hydroxylation rate of 43% increased by 29%, and the melting temperature (Tm) rose by 5 °C compared to the non-hydroxylated rhCol. The system achieved a yield of 1.186 g/L of rhCol by batch-fed in a 7 L fermenter. This innovative technology is expected to drive the development and application of collagen-related biomaterials with significant application value in the fields of tissue engineering, regenerative medicine, and biopharmaceuticals.

Identification of candidate metabolite biomarkers for metabolic syndrome and its five components in population-based human cohorts

BACKGROUND

Metabolic Syndrome (MetS) is characterized by risk factors such as abdominal obesity, hypertriglyceridemia, low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), hypertension, and hyperglycemia, which contribute to the development of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. Here, we aim to identify candidate metabolite biomarkers of MetS and its associated risk factors to better understand the complex interplay of underlying signaling pathways.

METHODS

We quantified serum samples of the KORA F4 study participants (N = 2815) and analyzed 121 metabolites. Multiple regression models adjusted for clinical and lifestyle covariates were used to identify metabolites that were Bonferroni significantly associated with MetS. These findings were replicated in the SHIP-TREND-0 study (N = 988) and further analyzed for the association of replicated metabolites with the five components of MetS. Database-driven networks of the identified metabolites and their interacting enzymes were also constructed.

RESULTS

We identified and replicated 56 MetS-specific metabolites: 13 were positively associated (e.g., Val, Leu/Ile, Phe, and Tyr), and 43 were negatively associated (e.g., Gly, Ser, and 40 lipids). Moreover, the majority (89%) and minority (23%) of MetS-specific metabolites were associated with low HDL-C and hypertension, respectively. One lipid, lysoPC a C18:2, was negatively associated with MetS and all of its five components, indicating that individuals with MetS and each of the risk factors had lower concentrations of lysoPC a C18:2 compared to corresponding controls. Our metabolic networks elucidated these observations by revealing impaired catabolism of branched-chain and aromatic amino acids, as well as accelerated Gly catabolism.

CONCLUSION

Our identified candidate metabolite biomarkers are associated with the pathophysiology of MetS and its risk factors. They could facilitate the development of therapeutic strategies to prevent type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. For instance, elevated levels of lysoPC a C18:2 may protect MetS and its five risk components. More in-depth studies are necessary to determine the mechanism of key metabolites in the MetS pathophysiology.

The aromatic amino acid hydroxylases: Structures, catalysis, and regulation of phenylalanine hydroxylase, tyrosine hydroxylase, and tryptophan hydroxylase

The aromatic amino acid hydroxylases phenylalanine hydroxylase, tyrosine hydroxylase, and tryptophan hydroxylase are non-heme iron enzymes that catalyze key physiological reactions. This review discusses the present understanding of the common catalytic mechanism of these enzymes and recent advances in understanding the relationship between their structures and their regulation.

Biosynthesizing structurally diverse diols via a general route combining oxidative and reductive formations of OH-groups

Diols encompass important bulk and fine chemicals for the chemical, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. During the past decades, biological production of C3-C5 diols from renewable feedstocks has received great interest. Here, we elaborate a general principle for effectively synthesizing structurally diverse diols by expanding amino acid metabolism. Specifically, we propose to combine oxidative and reductive formations of hydroxyl groups from amino acids in a thermodynamically favorable order of four reactions catalyzed by amino acid hydroxylase, L-amino acid deaminase, α-keto acid decarboxylase and aldehyde reductase consecutively. The oxidative formation of hydroxyl group from an alkyl group is energetically more attractive than the reductive pathway, which is exclusively used in the synthetic pathways of diols reported so far. We demonstrate this general route for microbial production of branched-chain diols in E. coli. Ten C3-C5 diols are synthesized. Six of them, namely isopentyldiol (IPDO), 2-methyl-1,3-butanediol (2-M-1,3-BDO), 2-methyl-1,4-butanediol (2-M-1,4-BDO), 2-methyl-1,3-propanediol (MPO), 2-ethyl-1,3-propanediol (2-E-1,3-PDO), 1,4-pentanediol (1,4-PTD), have not been biologically synthesized before. This work opens up opportunities for synthesizing structurally diverse diols and triols, especially by genome mining, rational design or directed evolution of proper enzymes.

Diols are important bulk and fine chemicals, but bioproduciton of branch-chain diols is hampered by the unknown biological route. Here, the authors report the expanding of amino acid metabolism for biosynthesis of branch-chain diols via a general route of combined oxidative and reductive formations of hydroxyl groups.

Structural mechanism for tyrosine hydroxylase inhibition by dopamine and reactivation by Ser40 phosphorylation

Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) catalyzes the rate-limiting step in the biosynthesis of dopamine (DA) and other catecholamines, and its dysfunction leads to DA deficiency and parkinsonisms. Inhibition by catecholamines and reactivation by S40 phosphorylation are key regulatory mechanisms of TH activity and conformational stability. We used Cryo-EM to determine the structures of full-length human TH without and with DA, and the structure of S40 phosphorylated TH, complemented with biophysical and biochemical characterizations and molecular dynamics simulations. TH presents a tetrameric structure with dimerized regulatory domains that are separated 15 Å from the catalytic domains. Upon DA binding, a 20-residue α-helix in the flexible N-terminal tail of the regulatory domain is fixed in the active site, blocking it, while S40-phosphorylation forces its egress. The structures reveal the molecular basis of the inhibitory and stabilizing effects of DA and its counteraction by S40-phosphorylation, key regulatory mechanisms for homeostasis of DA and TH.

Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) catalyzes the rate-limiting step in the synthesis of the catecholamine neurotransmitters and hormones dopamine (DA), adrenaline and noradrenaline. Here, the authors present the cryo-EM structures of full-length human TH in the apo form and bound with DA, as well as the structure of Ser40 phosphorylated TH, and discuss the inhibitory and stabilizing effects of DA on TH and its counteraction by Ser40-phosphorylation.

A biosynthetic pathway to aromatic amines that uses glycyl-tRNA as nitrogen donor

Aromatic amines in nature are typically installed with Glu or Gln as the nitrogen donor. Here we report a pathway that features glycyl-tRNA instead. During the biosynthesis of pyrroloiminoquinone-type natural products such as ammosamides, peptide-aminoacyl tRNA ligases append amino acids to the C-terminus of a ribosomally synthesized peptide. First, [Formula: see text] adds Trp in a Trp-tRNA-dependent reaction and the flavoprotein AmmC₁ then carries out three hydroxylations of the indole ring of Trp. After oxidation to the corresponding ortho-hydroxy para-quinone, [Formula: see text] attaches Gly to the indole ring in a Gly-tRNA dependent fashion. Subsequent decarboxylation and hydrolysis results in an amino-substituted indole. Similar transformations are catalysed by orthologous enzymes from Bacillus halodurans. This pathway features three previously unknown biochemical processes using a ribosomally synthesized peptide as scaffold for non-ribosomal peptide extension and chemical modification to generate an amino acid-derived natural product.

Levalbuterol lowers the feedback inhibition by dopamine and delays misfolding and aggregation in tyrosine hydroxylase

Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) catalyses the (6R)-L-erythro-5,6,7,8-tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4)-dependent conversion of L-tyrosine to L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-Dopa), which is the rate-limiting step in the synthesis of dopamine and other catecholamine neurotransmitters and hormones. Dysfunctional mutant TH causes tyrosine hydroxylase deficiency (THD), characterized by symptoms ranging from mild l-Dopa responsive dystonia to severe neuropathy. THD-associated mutations often present misfolding and a propensity to aggregate, characteristics that can also be manifested by dysregulated wild-type TH. TH - and subsequently dopamine - is also reduced in Parkinson's disease (PD) due to the selective death of dopaminergic neurons. Thus, TH is a target for stabilizing small molecular weight compounds that can function as pharmacological chaperones, restoring enzyme folding and function. In this work we carried out a screening of a compound library with 1280 approved drugs and we identified levalbuterol, a beta2-adrenergic agonist that is broadly used in asthma treatment, as an interesting validated binder of human TH. Levalbuterol stabilized TH with reduced affinity compared to dopamine, the end-product and regulatory feedback inhibitor of TH, but without compromising enzymatic activity. Moreover, levalbuterol also delays the formation of TH aggregates and makes the enzyme less sensitive to dopamine, effects that could contribute to ameliorate disorders related to TH, such as THD and PD.

Clinical and Genetic Heterogeneity in a Cohort of Chinese Children With Dopa-Responsive Dystonia

Background: The aim of this study was to investigate the genetic and clinical features of dopa-responsive dystonia (DRD) in China. Method: Characteristics of gene mutations and clinical manifestations of 31 patients diagnosed with DRD were analyzed retrospectively. Result: From January 2000 to January 2019, 31 patients were diagnosed with DRD. Twenty (64.5%) were male, and 11 (35.5%) were female. Ten patients (32.3%) had classic DRD, 19 (61.3%) had DRD-plus, and 2 (6.4%) patients had mutations in the dopamine synthetic pathway (PTS gene mutation) without a typical phenotype (not DRD or DRD-plus). Twenty-eight (90.3%) patients underwent genetic testing. Homozygous or compound heterozygous TH gene mutations were found in 22 patients. GCH1 and PTS gene mutations were found in 2 patients. Heterozygous TH mutation and genetic testing were negative in 1 patient. They took different doses of L-dopa, ranging from 0.4 to 8.7 mg/kg/d. Patients with classic DRD responded well. In patients with DRD-plus, 94.7% (18/19) responded well with residual symptoms. One patient (5.3%) did not show any improvement. Conclusion: DRD can be divided into classic DRD and DRD-plus. In this cohort, the most common pathogenic gene was TH. Fever was the important inducing factor of the disease. L-dopa has sustained and stable effects on patients with classic DRD. In patients with DRD-plus, treatment with L-dopa could ameliorate most of the symptoms.

Structure of full-length wild-type human phenylalanine hydroxylase by small angle X-ray scattering reveals substrate-induced conformational stability

Human phenylalanine hydroxylase (hPAH) hydroxylates L-phenylalanine (L-Phe) to L-tyrosine, a precursor for neurotransmitter biosynthesis. Phenylketonuria (PKU), caused by mutations in PAH that impair PAH function, leads to neurological impairment when untreated. Understanding the hPAH structural and regulatory properties is essential to outline PKU pathophysiological mechanisms. Each hPAH monomer comprises an N-terminal regulatory, a central catalytic and a C-terminal oligomerisation domain. To maintain physiological L-Phe levels, hPAH employs complex regulatory mechanisms. Resting PAH adopts an auto-inhibited conformation where regulatory domains block access to the active site. L-Phe-mediated allosteric activation induces a repositioning of the regulatory domains. Since a structure of activated wild-type hPAH is lacking, we addressed hPAH L-Phe-mediated conformational changes and report the first solution structure of the allosterically activated state. Our solution structures obtained by small-angle X-ray scattering support a tetramer with distorted P222 symmetry, where catalytic and oligomerisation domains form a core from which regulatory domains protrude, positioning themselves close to the active site entrance in the absence of L-Phe. Binding of L-Phe induces a large movement and dimerisation of regulatory domains, exposing the active site. Activated hPAH is more resistant to proteolytic cleavage and thermal denaturation, suggesting that the association of regulatory domains stabilises hPAH.

Biophysical characterization of full-length human phenylalanine hydroxylase provides a deeper understanding of its quaternary structure equilibrium

Dysfunction of human phenylalanine hydroxylase (hPAH, EC 1.14.16.1) is the primary cause of phenylketonuria, the most common inborn error of amino acid metabolism. The dynamic domain rearrangements of this multimeric protein have thwarted structural study of the full-length form for decades, until now. In this study, a tractable C29S variant of hPAH (C29S) yielded a 3.06 Å resolution crystal structure of the tetrameric resting-state conformation. We used size-exclusion chromatography in line with small-angle X-ray scattering (SEC-SAXS) to analyze the full-length hPAH solution structure both in the presence and absence of Phe, which serves as both substrate and allosteric activators. Allosteric Phe binding favors accumulation of an activated PAH tetramer conformation, which is biophysically distinct in solution. Protein characterization with enzyme kinetics and intrinsic fluorescence revealed that the C29S variant and hPAH are otherwise equivalent in their response to Phe, further supported by their behavior on various chromatography resins and by analytical ultracentrifugation. Modeling of resting-state and activated forms of C29S against SAXS data with available structural data created and evaluated several new models for the transition between the architecturally distinct conformations of PAH and highlighted unique intra- and inter-subunit interactions. Three best-fitting alternative models all placed the allosteric Phe-binding module 8-10 Å farther from the tetramer center than do all previous models. The structural insights into allosteric activation of hPAH reported here may help inform ongoing efforts to treat phenylketonuria with novel therapeutic approaches.

Phenylalanine hydroxylase variants interact with the co-chaperone DNAJC12

DNAJC12, a type III member of the HSP40/DNAJ family, has been identified as the specific co-chaperone of phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH) and the other aromatic amino acid hydroxylases. DNAJ proteins work together with molecular chaperones of the HSP70 family to assist in proper folding and maintenance of intracellular stability of their clients. Autosomal recessive mutations in DNAJC12 were found to reduce PAH levels, leading to hyperphenylalaninemia (HPA) in patients without mutations in PAH. In this work, we investigated the interaction of normal wild-type DNAJC12 with mutant PAH in cells expressing several PAH variants associated with HPA in humans, as well as in the Enu^1/1 mouse model, homozygous for the V106A-Pah variant, which leads to severe protein instability, accelerated PAH degradation and mild HPA. We found that mutant PAH exhibits increased ubiquitination, instability, and aggregation compared with normal PAH. In mouse liver lysates, we showed that DNAJC12 interacts with monoubiquitin-tagged PAH. This form represented a major fraction of PAH in the Enu^1/1 but was also present in liver of wild-type PAH mice. Our results support a role of DNAJC12 in the processing of misfolded ubiquitinated PAH by the ubiquitin-dependent proteasome/autophagy systems and add to the evidence that the DNAJ proteins are important players both for proper folding and degradation of their clients.

The phenylketonuria-associated substitution R68S converts phenylalanine hydroxylase to a constitutively active enzyme but reduces its stability

The naturally occurring R68S substitution of phenylalanine hydroxylase (PheH) causes phenylketonuria (PKU). However, the molecular basis for how the R68S variant leads to PKU remains unclear. Kinetic characterization of R68S PheH establishes that the enzyme is fully active in the absence of allosteric binding of phenylalanine, in contrast to the WT enzyme. Analytical ultracentrifugation establishes that the isolated regulatory domain of R68S PheH is predominantly monomeric in the absence of phenylalanine and dimerizes in its presence, similar to the regulatory domain of the WT enzyme. Fluorescence and small-angle X-ray scattering analyses establish that the overall conformation of the resting form of R68S PheH is different from that of the WT enzyme. The data are consistent with the substitution disrupting the interface between the catalytic and regulatory domains of the enzyme, shifting the equilibrium between the resting and activated forms ∼200-fold, so that the resting form of R68S PheH is ∼70% in the activated conformation. However, R68S PheH loses activity 2 orders of magnitude more rapidly than the WT enzyme at 37 °C and is significantly more sensitive to proteolysis. We propose that, even though this substitution converts the enzyme to a constitutively active enzyme, it results in PKU because of the decrease in protein stability.

The quaternary structure of human tyrosine hydroxylase: effects of dystonia-associated missense variants on oligomeric state and enzyme activity

Abstract

Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) is a multi‐domain, homo‐oligomeric enzyme that catalyses the rate‐limiting step of catecholamine neurotransmitter biosynthesis. Missense variants of human TH are associated with a recessive neurometabolic disease with low levels of brain dopamine and noradrenaline, resulting in a variable clinical picture, from progressive brain encephalopathy to adolescent onset DOPA‐responsive dystonia (DRD). We expressed isoform 1 of human TH (hTH1) and its dystonia‐associated missense variants in E. coli, analysed their quaternary structure and thermal stability using size‐exclusion chromatography, circular dichroism, multi‐angle light scattering, transmission electron microscopy, small‐angle X‐ray scattering and assayed hydroxylase activity. Wild‐type (WT) hTH1 was a mixture of enzymatically stable tetramers (85.6%) and octamers (14.4%), with little interconversion between these species. We also observed small amounts of higher order assemblies of long chains of enzyme by transmission electron microscopy. To investigate the role of molecular assemblies in the pathogenesis of DRD, we compared the structure of WT hTH1 with the DRD‐associated variants R410P and D467G that are found in vicinity of the predicted subunit interfaces. In contrast to WT hTH1, R410P and D467G were mixtures of tetrameric and dimeric species. Inspection of the available structures revealed that Arg‐410 and Asp‐467 are important for maintaining the stability and oligomeric structure of TH. Disruption of the normal quaternary enzyme structure by missense variants is a new molecular mechanism that may explain the loss of TH enzymatic activity in DRD. Unstable missense variants could be targets for pharmacological intervention in DRD, aimed to re‐establish the normal oligomeric state of TH.

Phosphorylation of Phenylalanine Hydroxylase Increases the Rate Constant for Formation of the Activated Conformation of the Enzyme

Liver phenylalanine hydroxylase (PheH) is an allosteric enzyme that is activated by phenylalanine. The enzyme is also phosphorylated by protein kinase A, but the effects of phosphorylation are unclear. Recent structural studies ( Meisburger et al. ( 2016 ) J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 138 , 6506 - 6516 ) support a model in which activation of the enzyme involves dimerization of the regulatory domains, creating the allosteric site for phenylalanine at the dimer interface. This conformational change also results in a change in the fluorescence of the protein that can be used to monitor activation. The kinetics of activation of PheH are biphasic over a range of phenylalanine concentrations. These data are well-described by a model involving an initial equilibrium between the resting form and the activated conformation, with a value of the equilibrium constant for formation of the activated conformation, L, equal to 0.007, followed by binding of two molecules of phenylalanine. Phosphorylation increases L 10-fold by increasing the rate constant for conversion of the resting form to the activated form. The results provide functional support for the previous structural model, identify the specific effect of phosphorylation on the enzyme, and rationalize the lack of change in the protein structure upon phosphorylation.

Human tyrosine hydroxylase in Parkinson's disease and in related disorders

Parkinson's disease (PD) is an aging-related movement disorder mainly caused by a deficiency of neurotransmitter dopamine (DA) in the striatum of the brain and is considered to be due to progressive degeneration of nigro-striatal DA neurons. Most PD is sporadic without family history (sPD), and there are only a few percent of cases of young-onset familial PD (fPD, PARKs) with the chromosomal locations and the genes identified. Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4)-dependent and iron-containing monooxygenase, catalyzes the conversion of L-tyrosine to L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA), which is the initial and rate-limiting step in the biosynthesis of catecholamines (DA, noradrenaline, and adrenaline). PD affects specifically TH-containing catecholamine neurons. The most marked neurodegeneration in patients with DA deficiency is observed in the nigro-striatal DA neurons, which contain abundant TH. Accordingly, TH has been speculated to play some important roles in the pathophysiology in PD. However, this decrease in TH is thought to be secondary due to neurodegeneration of DA neurons caused by some as yet unidentified genetic and environmental factors, and thus, TH deficiency may not play a direct role in PD. This manuscript provides an overview of the role of human TH in the pathophysiology of PD, covering the following aspects: (1) structures of the gene and protein of human TH in relation to PD; (2) similarity and dissimilarity between the phenotypes of aging-related sPD and those of young-onset fPD or DOPA-responsive dystonia due to DA deficiency in the striatum with decreased TH activity caused by mutations in either the TH gene or GTP cyclohydrolase I (GCH1) gene; and (3) genetic variants of the TH gene (polymorphisms, rare variants, and mutations) in PD, as discovered recently by advanced genome analysis.

A Three-Ring Circus: Metabolism of the Three Proteogenic Aromatic Amino Acids and Their Role in the Health of Plants and Animals

Tyrosine, phenylalanine and tryptophan are the three aromatic amino acids (AAA) involved in protein synthesis. These amino acids and their metabolism are linked to the synthesis of a variety of secondary metabolites, a subset of which are involved in numerous anabolic pathways responsible for the synthesis of pigment compounds, plant hormones and biological polymers, to name a few. In addition, these metabolites derived from the AAA pathways mediate the transmission of nervous signals, quench reactive oxygen species in the brain, and are involved in the vast palette of animal coloration among others pathways. The AAA and metabolites derived from them also have integral roles in the health of both plants and animals. This review delineates the de novo biosynthesis of the AAA by microbes and plants, and the branching out of AAA metabolism into major secondary metabolic pathways in plants such as the phenylpropanoid pathway. Organisms that do not possess the enzymatic machinery for the de novo synthesis of AAA must obtain these primary metabolites from their diet. Therefore, the metabolism of AAA by the host animal and the resident microflora are important for the health of all animals. In addition, the AAA metabolite-mediated host-pathogen interactions in general, as well as potential beneficial and harmful AAA-derived compounds produced by gut bacteria are discussed. Apart from the AAA biosynthetic pathways in plants and microbes such as the shikimate pathway and the tryptophan pathway, this review also deals with AAA catabolism in plants, AAA degradation via the monoamine and kynurenine pathways in animals, and AAA catabolism via the 3-aryllactate and kynurenine pathways in animal-associated microbes. Emphasis will be placed on structural and functional aspects of several key AAA-related enzymes, such as shikimate synthase, chorismate mutase, anthranilate synthase, tryptophan synthase, tyrosine aminotransferase, dopachrome tautomerase, radical dehydratase, and type III CoA-transferase. The past development and current potential for interventions including the development of herbicides and antibiotics that target key enzymes in AAA-related pathways, as well as AAA-linked secondary metabolism leading to antimicrobials are also discussed.

PKU mutation p.G46S prevents the stereospecific binding of l-phenylalanine to the dimer of human phenylalanine hydroxylase regulatory domain

Mammalian phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH) has a potential allosteric regulatory binding site for l‐phenylalanine (l‐Phe), in addition to its catalytic site. This arrangement is supported by a crystal structure of a homodimeric truncated form of the regulatory domain of human PAH (hPAH‐RD^{1–118/19–118}) [Patel D et al. (2016) Sci Rep doi: 10.1038/srep23748]. In this study, a fusion protein of the domain (MBP‐(pep_Xa)‐hPAH‐RD^1–120) was overexpressed and recovered in a metastable and soluble state, which allowed the isolation of a dimeric and a monomeric fusion protein. When cleaved from MBP, hPAH‐RD forms aggregates which are stereospecifically inhibited by l‐Phe (> 95%) at low physiological concentrations. Aggregation of the cleaved dimer of the mutant form hPAH‐G46S‐RD was not inhibited by l‐Phe, which is compatible with structurally/conformationally changed βαββαβ ACT domain folds in the mutant.

Tyrosine and tryptophan hydroxylases as therapeutic targets in human disease

INTRODUCTION

The ancient and ubiquitous monoamine signalling molecules serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine are involved in multiple physiological functions. The aromatic amino acid hydroxylases tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), tryptophan hydroxylase 1 (TPH1), and tryptophan hydroxylase 2 (TPH2) catalyse the rate-limiting steps in the biosynthesis of these monoamines. Genetic variants of TH, TPH1, and TPH2 genes are associated with neuropsychiatric disorders. The interest in these enzymes as therapeutic targets is increasing as new roles of these monoamines have been discovered, not only in brain function and disease, but also in development, cardiovascular function, energy and bone homeostasis, gastrointestinal motility, hemostasis, and liver function. Areas covered: Physiological roles of TH, TPH1, and TPH2. Enzyme structures, catalytic and regulatory mechanisms, animal models, and associated diseases. Interactions with inhibitors, pharmacological chaperones, and regulatory proteins relevant for drug development. Expert opinion: Established inhibitors of these enzymes mainly target their amino acid substrate binding site, while tetrahydrobiopterin analogues, iron chelators, and allosteric ligands are less studied. New insights into monoamine biology and 3D-structural information and new computational/experimental tools have triggered the development of a new generation of more selective inhibitors and pharmacological chaperones. The enzyme complexes with their regulatory 14-3-3 proteins are also emerging as therapeutic targets.

Stable preparations of tyrosine hydroxylase provide the solution structure of the full-length enzyme

Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) catalyzes the rate-limiting step in the biosynthesis of catecholamine neurotransmitters. TH is a highly complex enzyme at mechanistic, structural, and regulatory levels, and the preparation of kinetically and conformationally stable enzyme for structural characterization has been challenging. Here, we report on improved protocols for purification of recombinant human TH isoform 1 (TH1), which provide large amounts of pure, stable, active TH1 with an intact N-terminus. TH1 purified through fusion with a His-tagged maltose-binding protein on amylose resin was representative of the iron-bound functional enzyme, showing high activity and stabilization by the natural feedback inhibitor dopamine. TH1 purified through fusion with a His-tagged ZZ domain on TALON is remarkably stable, as it was partially inhibited by resin-derived cobalt. This more stable enzyme preparation provided high-quality small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) data and reliable structural models of full-length tetrameric TH1. The SAXS-derived model reveals an elongated conformation (D_max = 20 nm) for TH1, different arrangement of the catalytic domains compared with the crystal structure of truncated forms, and an N-terminal region with an unstructured tail that hosts the phosphorylation sites and a separated Ala-rich helical motif that may have a role in regulation of TH by interacting with binding partners.

The regulatory domain of human tryptophan hydroxylase 1 forms a stable dimer

The three eukaryotic aromatic amino acid hydroxylases phenylalanine hydroxylase, tyrosine hydroxylase, and tryptophan hydroxylase have essentially identical catalytic domains and discrete regulatory domains. The regulatory domains of phenylalanine hydroxylase form ACT domain dimers when phenylalanine is bound to an allosteric site. In contrast the regulatory domains of tyrosine hydroxylase form a stable ACT dimer that does not bind the amino acid substrate. The regulatory domain of isoform 1 of human tryptophan hydroxylase was expressed and purified; mutagenesis of Cys64 was required to prevent formation of disulfide-linked dimers. The resulting protein behaved as a dimer upon gel filtration and in analytical ultracentrifugation. The sw value of the protein was unchanged from 2.7 to 35 μM, a concentration range over which the regulatory domain of phenylalanine hydroxylase forms both monomers and dimers, consistent with the regulatory domain of tryptophan hydroxylase 1 forming a stable dimer stable that does not undergo a monomer-dimer equilibrium. Addition of phenylalanine, a good substrate for the enzyme, had no effect on the sw value, consistent with there being no allosteric site for the amino acid substrate.

Domain Movements upon Activation of Phenylalanine Hydroxylase Characterized by Crystallography and Chromatography-Coupled Small-Angle X-ray Scattering

Mammalian phenylalanine hydroxylase (PheH) is an allosteric enzyme that catalyzes the first step in the catabolism of the amino acid phenylalanine. Following allosteric activation by high phenylalanine levels, the enzyme catalyzes the pterin-dependent conversion of phenylalanine to tyrosine. Inability to control elevated phenylalanine levels in the blood leads to increased risk of mental disabilities commonly associated with the inherited metabolic disorder, phenylketonuria. Although extensively studied, structural changes associated with allosteric activation in mammalian PheH have been elusive. Here, we examine the complex allosteric mechanisms of rat PheH using X-ray crystallography, isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC), and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). We describe crystal structures of the preactivated state of the PheH tetramer depicting the regulatory domains docked against the catalytic domains and preventing substrate binding. Using SAXS, we further describe the domain movements involved in allosteric activation of PheH in solution and present the first demonstration of chromatography-coupled SAXS with Evolving Factor Analysis (EFA), a powerful method for separating scattering components in a model-independent way. Together, these results support a model for allostery in PheH in which phenylalanine stabilizes the dimerization of the regulatory domains and exposes the active site for substrate binding and other structural changes needed for activity.