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Zhao Z, Rudman NA, Dmochowski IJ. A Site-Specific Cross-Linker for Visible-Light Control of Proteins. ACS OMEGA 2024; 9:29331-29338. [PMID: 39005769 PMCID: PMC11238208 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.4c00968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2024] [Revised: 03/05/2024] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 07/16/2024]
Abstract
There is a need for photochemical tools that allow precise control of protein structure and function with visible light. We focus here on the s-tetrazine moiety, which can be installed at a specific protein site via the reaction between dichlorotetrazine and two adjacent sulfhydryl groups. Tetrazine's compact size enables structural mimicry of native amino acid linkages, such as an intramolecular salt bridge or disulfide bond. In this study, we investigated tetrazine installation in three different proteins, where it was confirmed that the cross-linking reaction is highly efficient in aqueous conditions and site-specific when two cysteines are located proximally: the S-S distance was 4-10 Å. As shown in maltose binding protein, the tetrazine cross-linker can replace an interdomain salt bridge crucial for xenon binding and serve as a visible-light photoswitch to modulate 129Xe NMR contrast. This work highlights the ease of aqueous tetrazine bioconjugation and its applications for protein photoregulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuangyu Zhao
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, 231 S. 34th St., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Nathan A Rudman
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, 231 S. 34th St., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Ivan J Dmochowski
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, 231 S. 34th St., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
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2
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McCullagh M, Zeczycki TN, Kariyawasam CS, Durie CL, Halkidis K, Fitzkee NC, Holt JM, Fenton AW. What is allosteric regulation? Exploring the exceptions that prove the rule! J Biol Chem 2024; 300:105672. [PMID: 38272229 PMCID: PMC10897898 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2024.105672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Revised: 01/09/2024] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
"Allosteric" was first introduced to mean the other site (i.e., a site distinct from the active or orthosteric site), an adjective for "regulation" to imply a regulatory outcome resulting from ligand binding at another site. That original idea outlines a system with two ligand-binding events at two distinct locations on a macromolecule (originally a protein system), which defines a four-state energy cycle. An allosteric energy cycle provides a quantifiable allosteric coupling constant and focuses our attention on the unique properties of the four equilibrated protein complexes that constitute the energy cycle. Because many observed phenomena have been referenced as "allosteric regulation" in the literature, the goal of this work is to use literature examples to explore which systems are and are not consistent with the two-ligand thermodynamic energy cycle-based definition of allosteric regulation. We emphasize the need for consistent language so comparisons can be made among the ever-increasing number of allosteric systems. Building on the mutually exclusive natures of an energy cycle definition of allosteric regulation versus classic two-state models, we conclude our discussion by outlining how the often-proposed Rube-Goldberg-like mechanisms are likely inconsistent with an energy cycle definition of allosteric regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin McCullagh
- Department of Chemistry, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA
| | - Tonya N Zeczycki
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Brody School of Medicine at East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, USA
| | - Chathuri S Kariyawasam
- Department of Chemistry, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, Mississippi, USA
| | - Clarissa L Durie
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, USA
| | - Konstantine Halkidis
- Department of Hematologic Malignancies and Cellular Therapeutics, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas, USA
| | - Nicholas C Fitzkee
- Department of Chemistry, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, Mississippi, USA
| | - Jo M Holt
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas, USA
| | - Aron W Fenton
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas, USA.
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3
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Ruiz-Gabarre D, Vallés-Saiz L, Carnero-Espejo A, Ferrer I, Hernández F, Garcia-Escudero R, Ávila J, García-Escudero V. Intron retention as a productive mechanism in human MAPT: RNA species generated by retention of intron 3. EBioMedicine 2024; 100:104953. [PMID: 38181704 PMCID: PMC10789595 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2023.104953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2022] [Revised: 12/10/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/07/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tau is a microtubule-binding protein encoded by the MAPT gene. Tau is essential for several physiological functions and associated with pathological processes, including Alzheimer's disease (AD). Six tau isoforms are typically described in the central nervous system, but current research paints a more diverse landscape and a more nuanced balance between isoforms. Recent work has described tau isoforms generated by intron 11 and intron 12 retention. This work adds to that evidence, proving the existence of MAPT transcripts retaining intron 3. Our aim is to demonstrate the existence of mature MAPT RNA species that retain intron 3 in human brain samples and to study its correlation with Alzheimer's disease across different regions. METHODS Initial evidence of intron-3-retaining MAPT species come from in silico analysis of RNA-seq databases. We further demonstrate the existence of these mature RNA species in a human neuroepithelioma cell line and human brain samples by quantitative PCR. We also use digital droplet PCR to demonstrate the existence of RNA species that retain either intron 3, intron 12 or both introns. FINDINGS Intron-3-retaining species are even more prominently present that intron-12-retaining ones. We show the presence of MAPT transcripts that retain both introns 3 and 12. These intron-retaining species are diminished in brain samples of patients with Alzheimer's disease with respect to individuals without dementia. Conversely, relative abundance of intron-3- or intron-12-retaining MAPT species with respect to double-retaining species as well as their percentage of expression with respect to total MAPT are increased in patients with Alzheimer's disease, especially in hippocampal samples. Among these TIR-MAPT species, TIR3+12 double truncation allows better classification potential of Alzheimer's disease samples. Moreover, we find a significant increase in intron-3- or intron-12-retaining species and its relative abundance with respect to double-retaining MAPT species in cerebellum in contrast to frontal lateral cortex and hippocampus in individuals with no signs of dementia. INTERPRETATION Intron retention constitutes a potential mechanism to generate Tau isoforms whose mature RNA expression levels correlate with Alzheimer's pathology showing its potential as a biomarker associated to the disease. FUNDING This research was funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities: PGC2018-096177-B-I00 (J.A.); Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (MCIN): PID2020-113204GB-I00 (F.H.) and PID2021-123859OB-100 from MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033/FEDER, UE (J.A.). It was also supported by CSIC through an intramural grant (201920E104) (J.A.) and the Centre for Networked Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases (J.A.). The Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (CBMSO) is a Severo Ochoa Center of Excellence (MICIN, award CEX2021-001154-S).
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Ruiz-Gabarre
- Anatomy, Histology and Neuroscience Department, School of Medicine, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM), 28029, Madrid, Spain; Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (UAM-CSIC), 28049, Madrid, Spain; Graduate Programa in Neuroscience, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM), 28029, Madrid, Spain
| | - Laura Vallés-Saiz
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (UAM-CSIC), 28049, Madrid, Spain
| | - Almudena Carnero-Espejo
- Anatomy, Histology and Neuroscience Department, School of Medicine, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM), 28029, Madrid, Spain; Graduate Programa in Neuroscience, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM), 28029, Madrid, Spain
| | - Isidro Ferrer
- Networking Research Centre on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029, Madrid, Spain; Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, University of Barcelona, 08907, Barcelona, Spain; Bellvitge University Hospital, IDIBELL (Bellvitge Biomedical Research Centre), 08908, Barcelona, Spain; Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, 08035, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Félix Hernández
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (UAM-CSIC), 28049, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ramon Garcia-Escudero
- Biomedical Oncology Unit, CIEMAT, 28040, Madrid, Spain; Research Institute Hospital 12 de Octubre (imas12), 28041, Madrid, Spain; Networking Research Centre on Cancer (CIBERONC), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jesús Ávila
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (UAM-CSIC), 28049, Madrid, Spain; Networking Research Centre on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Vega García-Escudero
- Anatomy, Histology and Neuroscience Department, School of Medicine, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM), 28029, Madrid, Spain; Graduate Programa in Neuroscience, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM), 28029, Madrid, Spain; Networking Research Centre on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029, Madrid, Spain; Institute for Molecular Biology-IUBM (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid), 28049, Madrid, Spain.
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4
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Ripoli C, Dagliyan O, Renna P, Pastore F, Paciello F, Sollazzo R, Rinaudo M, Battistoni M, Martini S, Tramutola A, Sattin A, Barone E, Saneyoshi T, Fellin T, Hayashi Y, Grassi C. Engineering memory with an extrinsically disordered kinase. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eadh1110. [PMID: 37967196 PMCID: PMC10651130 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adh1110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2023] [Accepted: 10/13/2023] [Indexed: 11/17/2023]
Abstract
Synaptic plasticity plays a crucial role in memory formation by regulating the communication between neurons. Although actin polymerization has been linked to synaptic plasticity and dendritic spine stability, the causal link between actin polymerization and memory encoding has not been identified yet. It is not clear whether actin polymerization and structural changes in dendritic spines are a driver or a consequence of learning and memory. Using an extrinsically disordered form of the protein kinase LIMK1, which rapidly and precisely acts on ADF/cofilin, a direct modifier of actin, we induced long-term enlargement of dendritic spines and enhancement of synaptic transmission in the hippocampus on command. The activation of extrinsically disordered LIMK1 in vivo improved memory encoding and slowed cognitive decline in aged mice exhibiting reduced cofilin phosphorylation. The engineered memory by an extrinsically disordered LIMK1 supports a direct causal link between actin-mediated synaptic transmission and memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristian Ripoli
- Department of Neuroscience, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Onur Dagliyan
- Division of Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institute, 17165 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Pietro Renna
- Department of Neuroscience, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Francesco Pastore
- Department of Neuroscience, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Fabiola Paciello
- Department of Neuroscience, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Raimondo Sollazzo
- Department of Neuroscience, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Marco Rinaudo
- Department of Neuroscience, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Martina Battistoni
- Department of Neuroscience, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Sara Martini
- Department of Neuroscience, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Antonella Tramutola
- Department of Biochemical Sciences “A. Rossi-Fanelli”, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Andrea Sattin
- Optical Approaches to Brain Function Laboratory, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 16163 Genoa, Italy
| | - Eugenio Barone
- Department of Biochemical Sciences “A. Rossi-Fanelli”, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Takeo Saneyoshi
- Department of Pharmacology, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Tommaso Fellin
- Optical Approaches to Brain Function Laboratory, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 16163 Genoa, Italy
| | - Yasunori Hayashi
- Department of Pharmacology, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Claudio Grassi
- Department of Neuroscience, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
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5
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Konrad KR, Gao S, Zurbriggen MD, Nagel G. Optogenetic Methods in Plant Biology. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2023; 74:313-339. [PMID: 37216203 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-071122-094840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Optogenetics is a technique employing natural or genetically engineered photoreceptors in transgene organisms to manipulate biological activities with light. Light can be turned on or off, and adjusting its intensity and duration allows optogenetic fine-tuning of cellular processes in a noninvasive and spatiotemporally resolved manner. Since the introduction of Channelrhodopsin-2 and phytochrome-based switches nearly 20 years ago, optogenetic tools have been applied in a variety of model organisms with enormous success, but rarely in plants. For a long time, the dependence of plant growth on light and the absence of retinal, the rhodopsin chromophore, prevented the establishment of plant optogenetics until recent progress overcame these difficulties. We summarize the recent results of work in the field to control plant growth and cellular motion via green light-gated ion channels and present successful applications to light-control gene expression with single or combined photoswitches in plants. Furthermore, we highlight the technical requirements and options for future plant optogenetic research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai R Konrad
- Molecular Plant Physiology and Biophysics, Julius-von-Sachs Institute for Biosciences, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany;
| | - Shiqiang Gao
- Department of Neurophysiology, Institute of Physiology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany; ,
| | - Matias D Zurbriggen
- Institute of Synthetic Biology and CEPLAS, University of Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany;
| | - Georg Nagel
- Department of Neurophysiology, Institute of Physiology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany; ,
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6
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Jain A, Dokholyan NV, Lee AL. Allosteric inactivation of an engineered optogenetic GTPase. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2219254120. [PMID: 36972433 PMCID: PMC10083549 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2219254120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Optogenetics is a technique for establishing direct spatiotemporal control over molecular function within living cells using light. Light application induces conformational changes within targeted proteins that produce changes in function. One of the applications of optogenetic tools is an allosteric control of proteins via light-sensing domain (LOV2), which allows direct and robust control of protein function. Computational studies supported by cellular imaging demonstrated that application of light allosterically inhibited signaling proteins Vav2, ITSN, and Rac1, but the structural and dynamic basis of such control has yet to be elucidated by experiment. Here, using NMR spectroscopy, we discover principles of action of allosteric control of cell division control protein 42 (CDC42), a small GTPase involved in cell signaling. Both LOV2 and Cdc42 employ flexibility in their function to switch between "dark"/"lit" or active/inactive states, respectively. By conjoining Cdc42 and phototropin1 LOV2 domains into the bi-switchable fusion Cdc42Lov, application of light-or alternatively, mutation in LOV2 to mimic light absorption-allosterically inhibits Cdc42 downstream signaling. The flow and patterning of allosteric transduction in this flexible system are well suited to observation by NMR. Close monitoring of the structural and dynamic properties of dark versus "lit" states of Cdc42Lov revealed lit-induced allosteric perturbations that extend to Cdc42's downstream effector binding site. Chemical shift perturbations for lit mimic, I539E, have distinct regions of sensitivity, and both the domains are coupled together, leading to bidirectional interdomain signaling. Insights gained from this optoallosteric design will increase our ability to control response sensitivity in future designs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abha Jain
- Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC27599
| | - Nikolay V. Dokholyan
- Department of Pharmacology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, PA17033
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, PA17033
| | - Andrew L. Lee
- Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC27599
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7
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Nunes Vicente F, Chen T, Rossier O, Giannone G. Novel imaging methods and force probes for molecular mechanobiology of cytoskeleton and adhesion. Trends Cell Biol 2023; 33:204-220. [PMID: 36055943 DOI: 10.1016/j.tcb.2022.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Revised: 07/26/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Detection and conversion of mechanical forces into biochemical signals is known as mechanotransduction. From cells to tissues, mechanotransduction regulates migration, proliferation, and differentiation in processes such as immune responses, development, and cancer progression. Mechanosensitive structures such as integrin adhesions, the actin cortex, ion channels, caveolae, and the nucleus sense and transmit forces. In vitro approaches showed that mechanosensing is based on force-dependent protein deformations and reorganizations. However, the mechanisms in cells remained unclear since cell imaging techniques lacked molecular resolution. Thanks to recent developments in super-resolution microscopy (SRM) and molecular force sensors, it is possible to obtain molecular insight of mechanosensing in live cells. We discuss how understanding of molecular mechanotransduction was revolutionized by these innovative approaches, focusing on integrin adhesions, actin structures, and the plasma membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filipe Nunes Vicente
- University Bordeaux, CNRS, Interdisciplinary Institute for Neuroscience, IINS, UMR 5297, Bordeaux, France; Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Meyerhofstrasse 1, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Tianchi Chen
- University Bordeaux, CNRS, Interdisciplinary Institute for Neuroscience, IINS, UMR 5297, Bordeaux, France
| | - Olivier Rossier
- University Bordeaux, CNRS, Interdisciplinary Institute for Neuroscience, IINS, UMR 5297, Bordeaux, France
| | - Grégory Giannone
- University Bordeaux, CNRS, Interdisciplinary Institute for Neuroscience, IINS, UMR 5297, Bordeaux, France.
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8
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Lan TH, He L, Huang Y, Zhou Y. Optogenetics for transcriptional programming and genetic engineering. Trends Genet 2022; 38:1253-1270. [PMID: 35738948 PMCID: PMC10484296 DOI: 10.1016/j.tig.2022.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2022] [Revised: 05/27/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Optogenetics combines genetics and biophotonics to enable noninvasive control of biological processes with high spatiotemporal precision. When engineered into protein machineries that govern the cellular information flow as depicted in the central dogma, multiple genetically encoded non-opsin photosensory modules have been harnessed to modulate gene transcription, DNA or RNA modifications, DNA recombination, and genome engineering by utilizing photons emitting in the wide range of 200-1000 nm. We present herein generally applicable modular strategies for optogenetic engineering and highlight latest advances in the broad applications of opsin-free optogenetics to program transcriptional outputs and precisely manipulate the mammalian genome, epigenome, and epitranscriptome. We also discuss current challenges and future trends in opsin-free optogenetics, which has been rapidly evolving to meet the growing needs in synthetic biology and genetics research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tien-Hung Lan
- Center for Translational Cancer Research, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M University, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Lian He
- Center for Translational Cancer Research, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M University, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Yun Huang
- Center for Epigenetics and Disease Prevention, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M University, Houston, TX, USA.
| | - Yubin Zhou
- Center for Translational Cancer Research, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M University, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Translational Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Texas A&M University, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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9
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Structure-guided optimization of light-activated chimeric G-protein-coupled receptors. Structure 2022; 30:1075-1087.e4. [PMID: 35588733 DOI: 10.1016/j.str.2022.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2022] [Revised: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest human receptor family and involved in virtually every physiological process. One hallmark of their function is specific coupling to selected signaling pathways. The ability to tune this coupling would make development of receptors with new capabilities possible. Complexes of GPCRs and G-proteins have recently been resolved at high resolution, but this information was in only few cases harnessed for rational receptor engineering. Here, we demonstrate structure-guided optimization of light-activated OptoXRs. Our hypothesis was that incorporation of GPCR-Gα contacts would lead to improved coupling. We first evaluated structure-based alignments for chimeric receptor fusion. We then show in a light-activated β2AR that including Gα contacts increased signaling 7- to 20-fold compared with other designs. In turn, contact elimination diminished function. Finally, this platform allowed optimization of a further OptoXR and spectral tuning. Our work exemplifies structure-based OptoXR development for targeted cell and network manipulation.
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10
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Abstract
Optogenetics combines light and genetics to enable precise control of living cells, tissues, and organisms with tailored functions. Optogenetics has the advantages of noninvasiveness, rapid responsiveness, tunable reversibility, and superior spatiotemporal resolution. Following the initial discovery of microbial opsins as light-actuated ion channels, a plethora of naturally occurring or engineered photoreceptors or photosensitive domains that respond to light at varying wavelengths has ushered in the next chapter of optogenetics. Through protein engineering and synthetic biology approaches, genetically-encoded photoswitches can be modularly engineered into protein scaffolds or host cells to control a myriad of biological processes, as well as to enable behavioral control and disease intervention in vivo. Here, we summarize these optogenetic tools on the basis of their fundamental photochemical properties to better inform the chemical basis and design principles. We also highlight exemplary applications of opsin-free optogenetics in dissecting cellular physiology (designated "optophysiology"), and describe the current progress, as well as future trends, in wireless optogenetics, which enables remote interrogation of physiological processes with minimal invasiveness. This review is anticipated to spark novel thoughts on engineering next-generation optogenetic tools and devices that promise to accelerate both basic and translational studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Tan
- Center for Translational Cancer Research, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M University, Houston, Texas, United States.,Klarman Cell Observatory, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Lian He
- Center for Translational Cancer Research, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M University, Houston, Texas, United States
| | - Yun Huang
- Center for Epigenetics and Disease Prevention, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M University, Houston, TX, United States.,Department of Translational Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Texas A&M University, Houston, Texas, United States
| | - Yubin Zhou
- Center for Translational Cancer Research, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M University, Houston, Texas, United States.,Department of Translational Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Texas A&M University, Houston, Texas, United States
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11
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Renna P, Ripoli C, Dagliyan O, Pastore F, Rinaudo M, Re A, Paciello F, Grassi C. Engineering a switchable single‐chain
TEV
protease to control protein maturation in living neurons. Bioeng Transl Med 2022; 7:e10292. [PMID: 35600650 PMCID: PMC9115699 DOI: 10.1002/btm2.10292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Revised: 11/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Engineered proteases are promising tools to address physiological and pathophysiological questions as well as to develop new therapeutic approaches. Here we introduce a new genetically encoded engineered single‐chain tobacco etch virus protease, allowing to control proprotein cleavage in different compartments of living mammalian cells. We demonstrated a set of controllable proteolytic effects, including cytosolic protein cleavage, inducible gene expression, and maturation of brain‐derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the secretory pathway thus showing the versatility of this technique. Of note, the secretory pathway exhibits different characteristics from the cytosol and it is difficult to target because inaccessible to some small molecules. We were able to induce ligand‐mediated BDNF maturation and monitor its effects on dendritic spines in hippocampal pyramidal cells and in the mouse brain. This strategy paves the way to dissect proteolytic cleavage product signaling in various processes as well as for future therapeutic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pietro Renna
- Department of Neuroscience Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome Italy
| | - Cristian Ripoli
- Department of Neuroscience Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome Italy
| | - Onur Dagliyan
- Department of Neurobiology Harvard Medical School Boston MA USA
| | - Francesco Pastore
- Department of Neuroscience Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome Italy
| | - Marco Rinaudo
- Department of Neuroscience Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome Italy
| | - Agnese Re
- Department of Neuroscience Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome Italy
| | - Fabiola Paciello
- Department of Neuroscience Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome Italy
| | - Claudio Grassi
- Department of Neuroscience Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome Italy
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12
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Abstract
Research on type 1 rhodopsins spans now a history of 50 years. Originally, just archaeal ion pumps and sensors have been discovered. However, with modern genetic techniques and gene sequencing tools, more and more proteins were identified in all kingdoms of life. Spectroscopic and other biophysical studies revealed quite diverse functions. Ion pumps, sensors, and channels are imprinted in the same seven-helix transmembrane protein scaffold carrying a retinal prosthetic group. In this review, molecular biology methods are described, which enabled the elucidation of their function and structure leading to optogenetic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Engelhard
- Department Structural Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology, Dortmund, Germany.
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13
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Murphy KJ, Reed DA, Trpceski M, Herrmann D, Timpson P. Quantifying and visualising the nuances of cellular dynamics in vivo using intravital imaging. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2021; 72:41-53. [PMID: 34091131 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceb.2021.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2021] [Revised: 04/23/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Intravital imaging is a powerful technology used to quantify and track dynamic changes in live cells and tissues within an intact environment. The ability to watch cell biology in real-time 'as it happens' has provided novel insight into tissue homeostasis, as well as disease initiation, progression and response to treatment. In this minireview, we highlight recent advances in the field of intravital microscopy, touching upon advances in awake versus anaesthesia-based approaches, as well as the integration of biosensors into intravital imaging. We also discuss current challenges that, in our opinion, need to be overcome to further advance the field of intravital imaging at the single-cell, subcellular and molecular resolution to reveal nuances of cell behaviour that can be targeted in complex disease settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kendelle J Murphy
- Garvan Institute of Medical Research & The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Cancer Theme, Sydney, NSW, 2010, Australia; St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2010, Australia
| | - Daniel A Reed
- Garvan Institute of Medical Research & The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Cancer Theme, Sydney, NSW, 2010, Australia; St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2010, Australia
| | - Michael Trpceski
- Garvan Institute of Medical Research & The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Cancer Theme, Sydney, NSW, 2010, Australia
| | - David Herrmann
- Garvan Institute of Medical Research & The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Cancer Theme, Sydney, NSW, 2010, Australia; St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2010, Australia.
| | - Paul Timpson
- Garvan Institute of Medical Research & The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Cancer Theme, Sydney, NSW, 2010, Australia; St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2010, Australia.
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14
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de Vink PJ, van der Hek T, Brunsveld L. Light-driven release of cucurbit[8]uril from a bivalent cage. Chem Sci 2021; 12:6726-6731. [PMID: 34040748 PMCID: PMC8132991 DOI: 10.1039/d1sc01410b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Accepted: 04/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Temporal control over supramolecular systems has great potential for the modulation of binding and assembly events, such as providing orthogonal control over protein activity. Especially light controlled triggering provides unique entries for supramolecular systems to interface in a controlled manner with enzymes. Here we report on the light-induced release of cucurbit[8]uril (CB[8]) from a bivalent cage molecule and its subsequent activation of a proteolytic enzyme, caspase-9, that itself is unresponsive to light. Central to the design is the bivalent binding of the cage with high affinity to CB[8], 100-fold stronger than the UV-inactivated products. The affinity switching occurs in the (sub-)micromolar concentration regime, matching the concentration characteristics required for dimerizing and activating caspase-9 by CB[8]. The light-responsive caged CB[8] concept presented offers a novel platform for tuning and application of switchable cucurbiturils and beyond.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pim J de Vink
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology P. O. Box 513 5600 MB Eindhoven The Netherlands
| | - Tim van der Hek
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology P. O. Box 513 5600 MB Eindhoven The Netherlands
| | - Luc Brunsveld
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology P. O. Box 513 5600 MB Eindhoven The Netherlands
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15
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Abreu N, Levitz J. Optogenetic Techniques for Manipulating and Sensing G Protein-Coupled Receptor Signaling. Methods Mol Biol 2021; 2173:21-51. [PMID: 32651908 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-0755-8_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) form the largest class of membrane receptors in the mammalian genome with nearly 800 human genes encoding for unique subtypes. Accordingly, GPCR signaling is implicated in nearly all physiological processes. However, GPCRs have been difficult to study due in part to the complexity of their function which can lead to a plethora of converging or diverging downstream effects over different time and length scales. Classic techniques such as pharmacological control, genetic knockout and biochemical assays often lack the precision required to probe the functions of specific GPCR subtypes. Here we describe the rapidly growing set of optogenetic tools, ranging from methods for optical control of the receptor itself to optical sensing and manipulation of downstream effectors. These tools permit the quantitative measurements of GPCRs and their downstream signaling with high specificity and spatiotemporal precision.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nohely Abreu
- Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology Graduate Program, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Joshua Levitz
- Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology Graduate Program, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA.
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA.
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16
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Martin E, Girardello R, Dittmar G, Ludwig A. New insights into the organization and regulation of the apical polarity network in mammalian epithelial cells. FEBS J 2021; 288:7073-7095. [DOI: 10.1111/febs.15710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Revised: 01/05/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Eleanor Martin
- School of Biological Sciences Nanyang Technological University Singapore City Singapore
- Proteomics of Cellular Signaling Luxembourg Institute of Health Strassen Luxembourg
| | - Rossana Girardello
- School of Biological Sciences Nanyang Technological University Singapore City Singapore
- Proteomics of Cellular Signaling Luxembourg Institute of Health Strassen Luxembourg
| | - Gunnar Dittmar
- Proteomics of Cellular Signaling Luxembourg Institute of Health Strassen Luxembourg
- Department of Life Sciences and Medicine University of Luxembourg Luxembourg
| | - Alexander Ludwig
- School of Biological Sciences Nanyang Technological University Singapore City Singapore
- NTU Institute of Structural Biology (NISB) Experimental Medicine Building Nanyang Technological University Singapore City Singapore
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17
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Wang Q, Fan H, Li F, Skeeters SS, Krishnamurthy VV, Song Y, Zhang K. Optical control of ERK and AKT signaling promotes axon regeneration and functional recovery of PNS and CNS in Drosophila. eLife 2020; 9:57395. [PMID: 33021199 PMCID: PMC7567606 DOI: 10.7554/elife.57395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroregeneration is a dynamic process synergizing the functional outcomes of multiple signaling circuits. Channelrhodopsin-based optogenetics shows the feasibility of stimulating neural repair but does not pin down specific signaling cascades. Here, we utilized optogenetic systems, optoRaf and optoAKT, to delineate the contribution of the ERK and AKT signaling pathways to neuroregeneration in live Drosophila larvae. We showed that optoRaf or optoAKT activation not only enhanced axon regeneration in both regeneration-competent and -incompetent sensory neurons in the peripheral nervous system but also allowed temporal tuning and proper guidance of axon regrowth. Furthermore, optoRaf and optoAKT differ in their signaling kinetics during regeneration, showing a gated versus graded response, respectively. Importantly in the central nervous system, their activation promotes axon regrowth and functional recovery of the thermonociceptive behavior. We conclude that non-neuronal optogenetics targets damaged neurons and signaling subcircuits, providing a novel strategy in the intervention of neural damage with improved precision. Most cells have a built-in regeneration signaling program that allows them to divide and repair. But, in the cells of the central nervous system, which are called neurons, this program is ineffective. This is why accidents and illnesses affecting the brain and spinal cord can cause permanent damage. Reactivating regeneration in neurons could help them repair, but it is not easy. Certain small molecules can switch repair signaling programs back on. Unfortunately, these molecules diffuse easily through tissues, spreading around the body and making it hard to target individual damaged cells. This both hampers research into neuronal repair and makes treatments directed at healing damage to the nervous system more likely to have side-effects. It is unclear whether reactivating regeneration signaling in individual neurons is possible. One way to address this question is to use optogenetics. This technique uses genetic engineering to fuse proteins that are light-sensitive to proteins responsible for relaying signals in the cell. When specific wavelengths of light hit the light-sensitive proteins, the fused signaling proteins switch on, leading to the activation of any proteins they control, for example, those involved in regeneration. Wang et al. used optogenetic tools to determine if light can help repair neurons in fruit fly larvae. First, a strong laser light was used to damage an individual neuron in a fruit fly larva that had been genetically modified so that blue light would activate the regeneration program in its neurons. Then, Wang et al. illuminated the cell with dim blue light, switching on the regeneration program. Not only did this allow the neuron to repair itself, it also allowed the light to guide its regeneration. By focusing the blue light on the damaged end of the neuron, it was possible to guide the direction of the cell's growth as it regenerated. Regeneration programs in flies and mammals involve similar signaling proteins, but blue light does not penetrate well into mammalian tissues. This means that further research into LEDs that can be implanted may be necessary before neuronal repair experiments can be performed in mammals. In any case, the ability to focus treatment on individual neurons paves the way for future work into the regeneration of the nervous system, and the combination of light and genetics could reveal more about how repair signals work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qin Wang
- Raymond G. Perelman Center for Cellular and Molecular Therapeutics, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, United States.,Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, United States
| | - Huaxun Fan
- Department of Biochemistry, Urbana, United States
| | - Feng Li
- Raymond G. Perelman Center for Cellular and Molecular Therapeutics, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, United States.,Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, United States
| | | | | | - Yuanquan Song
- Raymond G. Perelman Center for Cellular and Molecular Therapeutics, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, United States.,Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, United States
| | - Kai Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry, Urbana, United States.,Neuroscience Program, Urbana, United States.,Center for Biophysics and Quantitative Biology, Urbana, United States.,Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, United States
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18
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Zhou Y, Zou P. The evolving capabilities of enzyme-mediated proximity labeling. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2020; 60:30-38. [PMID: 32801087 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2020.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Revised: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 06/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The subcellular organization of proteins and RNA molecules is crucial for their proper functions. Over the past decade, both ligase-mediated and peroxidase-mediated proximity labeling (PL) techniques have been developed to map biomolecules at near-nanometer spatial resolution and subminute temporal resolution. These methods are shedding light on the spatial arrangement of proteome and transcriptome in their native context. Here, we review the recent evolution and applications of PL techniques, compare and contrast the two classes of methods, and highlight emerging trends and future opportunities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Zhou
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Synthetic and Functional Biomolecules Center, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Ministry of Education, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Peng Zou
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Synthetic and Functional Biomolecules Center, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Ministry of Education, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China; Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, PKU-IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China.
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19
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Banerjee S, Mitra D. Structural Basis of Design and Engineering for Advanced Plant Optogenetics. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2020; 25:35-65. [PMID: 31699521 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2019.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2018] [Revised: 09/12/2019] [Accepted: 10/03/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
In optogenetics, light-sensitive proteins are specifically expressed in target cells and light is used to precisely control the activity of these proteins at high spatiotemporal resolution. Optogenetics initially used naturally occurring photoreceptors to control neural circuits, but has expanded to include carefully designed and engineered photoreceptors. Several optogenetic constructs are based on plant photoreceptors, but their application to plant systems has been limited. Here, we present perspectives on the development of plant optogenetics, considering different levels of design complexity. We discuss how general principles of light-driven signal transduction can be coupled with approaches for engineering protein folding to develop novel optogenetic tools. Finally, we explore how the use of computation, networks, circular permutation, and directed evolution could enrich optogenetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudakshina Banerjee
- Department of Life Sciences, Presidency University, 86/1 College Street, Kolkata 700073, India
| | - Devrani Mitra
- Department of Life Sciences, Presidency University, 86/1 College Street, Kolkata 700073, India.
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20
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Mondal P, Krishnamurthy VV, Sharum SR, Haack N, Zhou H, Cheng J, Yang J, Zhang K. Repurposing Protein Degradation for Optogenetic Modulation of Protein Activities. ACS Synth Biol 2019; 8:2585-2592. [PMID: 31600062 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.9b00285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Non-neuronal optogenetic approaches empower precise regulation of protein dynamics in live cells but often require target-specific protein engineering. To address this challenge, we developed a generalizable light-modulated protein stabilization system (GLIMPSe) to control the intracellular protein level independent of its functionality. We applied GLIMPSe to control two distinct classes of proteins: mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase 3 (MKP3), a negative regulator of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway, and a constitutively active form of MEK (CA MEK), a positive regulator of the same pathway. Kinetics study showed that light-induced protein stabilization could be achieved within 30 min of blue light stimulation. GLIMPSe enables target-independent optogenetic control of protein activities and therefore minimizes the systematic variation embedded within different photoactivatable proteins. Overall, GLIMPSe promises to achieve light-mediated post-translational stabilization of a wide array of target proteins in live cells.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Jing Yang
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, 2001 S Lincoln Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61802, United States
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21
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Ha JH, Presti MF, Loh SN. A Single Protein Disruption Site Results in Efficient Reassembly by Multiple Engineering Methods. Biophys J 2019; 117:56-65. [PMID: 31221439 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2019.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2019] [Revised: 05/27/2019] [Accepted: 06/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Disrupting a protein's sequence by cleavage or insertion of a hinge domain forms the basis for protein engineering tools, including fragment complementation, circular permutation, and domain swapping. Despite the utility of these designs, their widespread implementation has been limited by the difficulty in choosing where to interrupt the protein sequence: the resulting fragments often aggregate or fail to reassemble. Here, we show that an optimal site exists within ribose binding protein (RBP) that, when disrupted, results in the most efficient formation of fragment-complemented and domain-swapped species. Cleaving RBP at this site also produces a highly stable, cooperatively folded circular permutant. This hot-spot site was identified by an experimental approach involving selection among competing folds. We find that efficiency in the case of RBP is determined by kinetic factors (survival of the first) rather than thermodynamics (survival of the fittest). Together with emerging computational tools, this limited data set defines a pathway for designing robust platforms for molecular switches and biosensors based on the aforementioned protein modifications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeung-Hoi Ha
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, State University of New York Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, New York
| | - Maria F Presti
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, State University of New York Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, New York
| | - Stewart N Loh
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, State University of New York Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, New York.
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22
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Hahn KM. An ‘on’ switch for proteins. Nature 2019; 569:490-491. [DOI: 10.1038/d41586-019-01394-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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