Conserved and divergent mechanisms of inner kinetochore assembly onto centromeric chromatin

Plant kinetochore complex: composition, function, and regulation

The kinetochore complex, an important protein assembly situated on the centromere, plays a pivotal role in chromosome segregation during cell division. Like in animals and fungi, the plant kinetochore complex is important for maintaining chromosome stability, regulating microtubule attachment, executing error correction mechanisms, and participating in signaling pathways to ensure accurate chromosome segregation. This review summarizes the composition, function, and regulation of the plant kinetochore complex, emphasizing the interactions of kinetochore proteins with centromeric DNAs (cenDNAs) and RNAs (cenRNAs). Additionally, the applications of the centromeric histone H3 variant (the core kinetochore protein CENH3, first identified as CENP-A in mammals) in the generation of ploidy-variable plants and synthesis of plant artificial chromosomes (PACs) are discussed. The review serves as a comprehensive roadmap for researchers delving into plant kinetochore exploration, highlighting the potential of kinetochore proteins in driving technological innovations in synthetic genomics and plant biotechnology.

Architecture of native kinetochores revealed by structural studies utilizing a thermophilic yeast

Eukaryotic chromosome segregation requires kinetochores, multi-megadalton protein machines that assemble on the centromeres of chromosomes and mediate attachments to dynamic spindle microtubules. Kinetochores are built from numerous complexes, and there has been progress in structural studies on recombinant subassemblies. However, there is limited structural information on native kinetochore architecture. To address this, we purified functional, native kinetochores from the thermophilic yeast Kluyveromyces marxianus and examined them by electron microscopy (EM), cryoelectron tomography (cryo-ET), and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The kinetochores are extremely large, flexible assemblies that exhibit features consistent with prior models. We assigned kinetochore polarity by visualizing their interactions with microtubules and locating the microtubule binder, Ndc80c. This work shows that isolated kinetochores are more dynamic and complex than what might be anticipated based on the known structures of recombinant subassemblies and provides the foundation to study the global architecture and functions of kinetochores at a structural level.

Structure of the human outer kinetochore KMN network complex

Faithful chromosome segregation requires robust, load-bearing attachments of chromosomes to the mitotic spindle, a function accomplished by large macromolecular complexes termed kinetochores. In most eukaryotes, the constitutive centromere-associated network (CCAN) complex of the inner kinetochore recruits to centromeres the ten-subunit outer kinetochore KMN network that comprises the KNL1C, MIS12C and NDC80C complexes. The KMN network directly attaches CCAN to microtubules through MIS12C and NDC80C. Here, we determined a high-resolution cryo-EM structure of the human KMN network. This showed an intricate and extensive assembly of KMN subunits, with the central MIS12C forming rigid interfaces with NDC80C and KNL1C, augmented by multiple peptidic inter-subunit connections. We also observed that unphosphorylated MIS12C exists in an auto-inhibited state that suppresses its capacity to interact with CCAN. Ser100 and Ser109 of the N-terminal segment of the MIS12C subunit Dsn1, two key targets of Aurora B kinase, directly stabilize this auto-inhibition. Our study indicates how selectively relieving this auto-inhibition through Ser100 and Ser109 phosphorylation might restrict outer kinetochore assembly to functional centromeres during cell division.

Structure of the human KMN complex and implications for regulation of its assembly

Biorientation of chromosomes during cell division is necessary for precise dispatching of a mother cell's chromosomes into its two daughters. Kinetochores, large layered structures built on specialized chromosome loci named centromeres, promote biorientation by binding and sensing spindle microtubules. One of the outer layer main components is a ten-subunit assembly comprising Knl1C, Mis12C and Ndc80C (KMN) subcomplexes. The KMN is highly elongated and docks on kinetochores and microtubules through interfaces at its opposite extremes. Here, we combine cryogenic electron microscopy reconstructions and AlphaFold2 predictions to generate a model of the human KMN that reveals all intra-KMN interfaces. We identify and functionally validate two interaction interfaces that link Mis12C to Ndc80C and Knl1C. Through targeted interference experiments, we demonstrate that this mutual organization strongly stabilizes the KMN assembly. Our work thus reports a comprehensive structural and functional analysis of this part of the kinetochore microtubule-binding machinery and elucidates the path of connections from the chromatin-bound components to the force-generating components.

The role of centromeric repeats and transcripts in kinetochore assembly and function

Centromeres are the chromosomal domains, where the kinetochore protein complex is formed, mediating proper segregation of chromosomes during cell division. Although the function of centromeres has remained conserved during evolution, centromeric DNA is highly variable, even in closely related species. In addition, the composition of the kinetochore complexes varies among organisms. Therefore, it is assumed that the centromeric position is determined epigenetically, and the centromeric histone H3 (CENH3) serves as an epigenetic marker. The loading of CENH3 onto centromeres depends on centromere-licensing factors, chaperones, and transcription of centromeric repeats. Several proteins that regulate CENH3 loading and kinetochore assembly interact with the centromeric transcripts and DNA in a sequence-independent manner. However, the functional aspects of these interactions are not fully understood. This review discusses the variability of centromeric sequences in different organisms and the regulation of their transcription through the RNA Pol II and RNAi machinery. The data suggest that the interaction of proteins involved in CENH3 loading and kinetochore assembly with centromeric DNA and transcripts plays a role in centromere, and possibly neocentromere, formation in a sequence-independent manner.

Bio-study: Modeling of natural nanomolecules as a nanocarrier surface for antioxidant and glucose biosensor

The nature of nano molecules as a self-assembled nanocomposite surface depends on the nanoparticles of sodium butyrate, cellulose, and pycnogenol; the synthesis is achieved via precipitation and grinding methods. The excellent functionalized surface of nanocomposite (NCP) enables the loading of the selected drugs, where the efficiency of the NCP surface arrived at 92.2 %. The electrochemical behavior emphasized the success of a functionalized NCP surface for incorporation with drugs for the drug delivery system, the results of cytotoxicity detect the effect of NCP on the mouse normal liver (BNL) cells, where the high and low concentrations on the BNL cells have a safe dose. Cell viability with BNL cells was reported at 101.8 % with10 μL and 100.12 % with 100 μL, the interaction between the NCP and the human serum albumin (HSA) at room temperature. The low interaction rate with the glutamate and increased binding with the oxidized glutathione disulfide (GSSG) and reduced glutathione (SGH) reflect the antioxidant activity of NCP. The strong binding of NCP with biomolecules such as glucose is referred to as the biosensor property. The results recommend that NCP is an excellent nanocarrier for drug delivery and glucose biosensors for diabetes.

Architecture and flexibility of native kinetochores revealed by structural studies utilizing a thermophilic yeast

Eukaryotic chromosome segregation requires kinetochores, multi-megadalton protein machines that assemble on the centromeres of chromosomes and mediate attachments to dynamic spindle microtubules. Kinetochores are built from numerous complexes, and understanding how they are arranged is key to understanding how kinetochores perform their multiple functions. However, an integrated understanding of kinetochore architecture has not yet been established. To address this, we purified functional, native kinetochores from Kluyveromyces marxianus and examined them by electron microscopy, cryo-electron tomography and atomic force microscopy. The kinetochores are extremely large, flexible assemblies that exhibit features consistent with prior models. We assigned kinetochore polarity by visualizing their interactions with microtubules and locating the microtubule binder Ndc80c. This work shows that isolated kinetochores are more dynamic and complex than what might be anticipated based on the known structures of recombinant subassemblies, and provides the foundation to study the global architecture and functions of kinetochores at a structural level.

A role for β-1,6- and β-1,3-glucans in kinetochore function in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Chromosome segregation is crucial for the faithful inheritance of DNA to the daughter cells after DNA replication. For this, the kinetochore, a megadalton protein complex, assembles on centromeric chromatin containing the histone H3 variant CENP-A, and provides a physical connection to the microtubules. Here, we report an unanticipated role for enzymes required for β-1,6- and β-1,3-glucan biosynthesis in regulating kinetochore function in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. These carbohydrates are the major constituents of the yeast cell wall. We found that the deletion of KRE6, which encodes a glycosylhydrolase/ transglycosidase required for β-1,6-glucan synthesis, suppressed the centromeric defect of mutations in components of the kinetochore, foremost the NDC80 components Spc24, Spc25, the MIND component Nsl1, and Okp1, a constitutive centromere-associated network protein. Similarly, the absence of Fks1, a β-1,3-glucan synthase, and Kre11/Trs65, a TRAPPII component, suppressed a mutation in SPC25. Genetic analysis indicates that the reduction of intracellular β-1,6- and β-1,3-glucans, rather than the cell wall glucan content, regulates kinetochore function. Furthermore, we found a physical interaction between Kre6 and CENP-A/Cse4 in yeast, suggesting a potential function for Kre6 in glycosylating CENP-A/Cse4 or another kinetochore protein. This work shows a moonlighting function for selected cell wall synthesis proteins in regulating kinetochore assembly, which may provide a mechanism to connect the nutritional status of the cell to cell-cycle progression and chromosome segregation.

An updated view of the kinetochore architecture

The kinetochore is a supramolecular complex that facilitates faithful chromosome segregation by bridging the centromere and spindle microtubules. Recent functional and structural studies on the inner kinetochore subcomplex, constitutive centromere-associated network (CCAN) have updated our understanding of kinetochore architecture. While the CCAN core establishes a stable interface with centromeric chromatin, CCAN organization is dynamically altered and coupled with cell cycle progression. Furthermore, the CCAN components, centromere protein (CENP)-C and CENP-T, mediate higher-order assembly of multiple kinetochore units on the regional centromeres of vertebrates. This review highlights new insights into kinetochore rigidity, plasticity, and clustering, which are key to understanding temporal and spatial regulatory mechanisms of chromosome segregation.

Single molecule analysis of CENP-A chromatin by high-speed atomic force microscopy

Chromatin accessibility is modulated in a variety of ways to create open and closed chromatin states, both of which are critical for eukaryotic gene regulation. At the single molecule level, how accessibility is regulated of the chromatin fiber composed of canonical or variant nucleosomes is a fundamental question in the field. Here, we developed a single-molecule tracking method where we could analyze thousands of canonical H3 and centromeric variant nucleosomes imaged by high-speed atomic force microscopy. This approach allowed us to investigate how changes in nucleosome dynamics in vitro inform us about transcriptional potential in vivo. By high-speed atomic force microscopy, we tracked chromatin dynamics in real time and determined the mean square displacement and diffusion constant for the variant centromeric CENP-A nucleosome. Furthermore, we found that an essential kinetochore protein CENP-C reduces the diffusion constant and mobility of centromeric nucleosomes along the chromatin fiber. We subsequently interrogated how CENP-C modulates CENP-A chromatin dynamics in vivo. Overexpressing CENP-C resulted in reduced centromeric transcription and impaired loading of new CENP-A molecules. From these data, we speculate that factors altering nucleosome mobility in vitro, also correspondingly alter transcription in vivo. Subsequently, we propose a model in which variant nucleosomes encode their own diffusion kinetics and mobility, and where binding partners can suppress or enhance nucleosome mobility.