Emissions of two phthalate esters and BDE 209 to indoor air and their impact on urban air quality

Development and validation of a GC Orbitrap-MS method for the analysis of phthalate esters (PAE) and bis(2-ethylhexyl)adipate (DEHA) in atmospheric particles and its application for screening PM2.5 from Curitiba, Brazil

Phthalates or phthalic acid esters (PAE) and bis(2-ethylhexyl)adipate (DEHA) are ubiquitous chemicals often used as plasticisers and additives in many industrial products and are classified as both persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and new emerging pollutants (NEPs). Exposure to these chemicals, especially through inhalation, is linked to a wide range of negative health effects, including endocrine disruption. Air particulate matter (PM) with an aerodynamic diameter ≤ 2.5 μm can be enriched with PAEs and DEHA and if inhaled can cause multi-system human toxicity. Therefore, proper monitoring of PAEs and DEHA in PM is required to assess human exposure to these pollutants. In this work, we developed and validated a new and sensitive gas-chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry (GC-HRMS) method for targeted analysis of PAEs including dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP), benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP), bis(2-ethylhexyl)adipate (DEHA), bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP), di-n-octyl phthalate (DOP), in PM. Analytical aspects including sample preparation steps and GC-HRMS parameters, e.g., quadrupole isolation window, to enhance method sensitivity have been assessed. The estimated limit of detection (LODs) of target PAEs and DEHA ranged from 5.5 to 17 pg μL-1, allowing their trace-level detection in PM. Extraction efficiencies of 78-101% were obtained for the target compounds. Low DMP and DEP extraction efficiencies from the spiked filter substrates indicated that significant losses of higher volatility PAEs can occur during the sample collection when filter-based techniques are used. This work is the first targeted method based on GC-Orbitrap MS for PAEs and DEHA in environmental samples. The validated method was successfully applied for the targeted analysis of PAEs and DEHA in PM2.5 samples from the eighth most populous city in Brazil, Curitiba. This work is the first to report DBP, DEHA, DEHP, and DOP in urban PM from Brazil. The observed concentrations of PAEs (up to 29 ng m-3) in PM2.5 from Curitiba may not represent the extent of pollution by these toxic compounds since the analysed samples were collected during a COVID-19 restriction when anthropogenic activities were reduced.

Composition and release rates of chemicals in inkjet fabrics determined by non-targeted screening and targeted analysis

Unveiling composition and release rates of chemicals in chemical-intensive products (CIPs) such as inkjet fabrics that are applied extensively in advertising and publicizing industries, is of importance to sound management of chemicals. This study tentatively identified 212 compounds from 69 inkjet fabric samples using gas chromatograph coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC-QTOF-MS). Contents of six phthalate esters (PAEs) were quantified to range from 3.0 × 102 mg/kg to 3.1 × 105 mg/kg with GC-MS. Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate was predominantly detected to average 96 g/kg. The inkjet fabrics collected from southern China contained fewer non-intentionally added substances (NIASs) than from northern China. Annual mass release rates (RM) of the 6 PAEs from inkjet fabrics to air were estimated to range from 1.4 × 10-2 kg/year to 2.8 × 104 kg/year in China in 2020, and the mean indoor RM was comparable with the outdoor one. Equilibrium partition coefficients of the compounds between the product and air, ambient temperature, and concentrations of chemicals in the product, are key factors leading to RM with the high variance. The findings indicate that contents of the NIASs in the CIPs should be minimized, and the refining concept should be adopted in design of the CIPs, so as to control the release of chemicals from the CIPs.

A critical review on BDE-209: Source, distribution, influencing factors, toxicity, and degradation

As the most widely used polybrominated diphenyl ether, BDE-209 is commonly used in polymer-based commercial and household products. Due to its unique physicochemical properties, BDE-209 is ubiquitous in a variety of environmental compartments and can be exposed to organisms in various ways and cause toxic effects. The present review outlines the current state of knowledge on the occurrence of BDE-209 in the environment, influencing factors, toxicity, and degradation. BDE-209 has been detected in various environmental matrices including air, soil, water, and sediment. Additionally, environmental factors such as organic matter, total suspended particulate, hydrodynamic, wind, and temperature affecting BDE-209 are specifically discussed. Toxicity studies suggest BDE-209 may cause systemic toxic effects on living organisms, reproductive toxicity, embryo-fetal toxicity, genetic toxicity, endocrine toxicity, neurotoxicity, immunotoxicity, and developmental toxicity, or even be carcinogenic. BDE-209 has toxic effects on organisms mainly through epigenetic regulation and induction of oxidative stress. Evidence regarding the degradation of BDE-209, including biodegradation, photodegradation, Fenton degradation, zero-valent iron degradation, chemical oxidative degradation, and microwave radiation degradation is summarized. This review may contribute to assessing the environmental risks of BDE-209 to help develop rational management plans.

Seasonal distribution characteristics and ecological risk assessment of phthalate esters in surface sediment of Songhua River basin

Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are typical industrial chemicals used in China. PAEs have received considerable attention because of their ubiquity and potential hazard to humans and the ecology. The spatiotemporal distributions of six PAEs in the surface sediments of the Songhua River in the spring (March), summer (July), and autumn (September) are investigated in this study. The total concentration of phthalic acid esters (∑6PAEs) ranges from 1.62 × 102 ng g-1 dry weight (dw) to 3.63 × 104 ng g-1·dw, where the amount in the spring is substantially higher (p < 0.01) than those in the autumn and summer. Seasonal variations in PAEs may be due to rainfall and temperature. The ∑6PAEs in the Songhua River's upper reaches are significantly higher than those in the middle and lower reaches (p < 0.05). Dibutyl phthalate (DBP) and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) are the two most abundant PAEs. The ecological hazard of five PAEs is assessed using the hazard quotient method. DBP and DEHP pose moderate or high ecological risks to aquatic organisms at various trophic levels. PAEs originate primarily from industrial, agricultural, and domestic sources. Absolute principal components-multiple linear regression results indicate that agricultural sources are the most dominant contributor to the ∑6PAEs (53.7%). Guidelines for controlling PAEs pollution in the Songhua River are proposed.

Is e-waste a source of phthalate and novel non-phthalate plasticizers? A comparison study on indoor dust

Nine traditional phthalate plasticizers and 33 novel non-phthalate plasticizers were determined in indoor dust from a typical e-waste recycling area. The median concentrations ranged from <LOQ to 22,700 ng/g for phthalates and from <LOQ to 1250 ng/g for non-phthalates. Bis-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and di-isononyl phthalate (DINP) were the two major phthalates in dust, while glycerol monooleate (GMO) and methyl oleate (MO) were the predominant non-phthalates. Different pollutant patterns among different sites implied multiple sources of the plasticizers. Using the ratio of DINP/DEHP as an indicator, we evaluated the impact of e-waste source emission on the sampling sites, resulting in an impact rank of Matou > Dakeng > Baihetang > Shiding > Jieyang, which was consistent with the local e-waste dismantling activities and supported by polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) levels. The correlations between chemical levels and the indicators indicated that most phthalates and non-phthalate plasticizers in the dust, might not be primarily influenced by e-waste emission sources. Additionally, the estimated median human exposures of phthalates and non-phthalates via dust ingestion were 30.6 and 1.82 ng/kg/day for adults, and 299 and 17.8 ng/kg/day for toddlers respectively, indicating negligible health risks.

Coupled Dynamic Material Flow, Multimedia Environmental Model, and Ecological Risk Analysis for Chemical Management: A Di(2-ethylhexhyl) Phthalate Case in China

Di(2-ethylhexhyl) phthalate (DEHP) is a widely used plasticizer that has adverse effects on ecosystems and human health. However, data about its stocks, flows, emission rates, as well as ecological risks are generally unknown in China, one of the world's largest producers of chemicals including DEHP, limiting sound management of chemicals. Herein, dynamic material flow analysis, coupled with a multimedia environmental model and ecological risk analysis, was performed to fill the data gap about DEHP in China mainland from 1956 to 2020. Results indicate that the in-use stocks of DEHP increased from 6.54 × 10⁶ kg in 1956 to 8.40 × 10⁹ kg in 2020. With growth in the emission rates, DEHP concentrations in air, soil, water, and sediment kept increasing from 1956 to 2010, which declined after 2010 and regrew after 2015. Sediment was a main sink of DEHP with the highest ecological risk quotient of >10 after 1999, necessitating measures for controlling the risk, for example, technology innovation to reduce DEHP emission rates, and substitution of DEHP with low-toxic alternatives. The coupled models that connect socio-economic data with ecological risk output may provide a systematic methodology for verification of the data necessary for risk control of chemicals.

The reaction laws and toxicity effects of phthalate acid esters (PAEs) ozonation degradation on the troposphere

Low-molecular-weight (LMW) phthalate acid esters (PAEs) tend to enter the atmosphere, flying for several kilometers, so it is easy to endanger human health. This work is the first to use quantum chemistry calculations (Gaussian 16 program) and computational toxicology (ECOSAR, TEST, and Toxtree software) to comprehensively study the ozonolysis mechanism of six LMW PAEs (dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), dipropyl phthalate (DPP), diisopropyl phthalate (DIP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), and diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP)) in the atmosphere and the toxicity of DMP (take DMP as an example) in the conversion process. The results show that the electron-donating effect of the ortho position of the LMW PAEs has the most obvious influence on the ozonolysis. We summarized the ozonation reaction law of LMW PAEs at the optimal reaction site. At 298 K, the law of initial ozonolysis total rate constant of the LMW PAEs is k_DIP > k_DPP > k_DIBP > k_DMP > k_DEP > k_DBP, and the range is 9.56 × 10^-25 cm³ molecule^-1 s^-1 - 1.47 × 10^-22 cm³ molecule^-1 s^-1. According to the results of toxicity assessment, the toxicity of products is lower than DMP for aquatic organisms after ozonolysis. But those products have mutagenicity, developmental toxicity, non-genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, and corrosiveness to the skin. The proposed ozonolysis mechanism promotes our understanding of the environmental risks of PAEs and provides new ideas for studying the degradation of PAEs in the tropospheric gas phase.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in the environmental systems: a review

PBDEs are human-influenced chemicals utilized massively as flame retardants. They are environmentally persistent, not easily degraded, bioaccumulate in the biological tissue of organisms, and bio-magnify across the food web. They can travel over a long distance, with air and water being their possible transport media. They can be transferred to non-target organisms by inhalation, oral ingestion, breastfeeding, or dermal contact. These pollutants adsorb easily to solid matrices due to their lipophilicity and hydrophobicity; thus, sediments from rivers, lakes, estuaries, and ocean are becoming their major reservoirs aquatic environments. They have low acute toxicity, but the effects of interfering with the thyroid hormone metabolism in the endocrine system are long term. Many congeners of PBDEs are considered to pose a danger to humans and the aquatic environment. They have shown the possibility of causing many undesirable effects, together with neurologic, immunological, and reproductive disruptions and possible carcinogenicity in humans. PBDEs have been detected in small amounts in biological samples, including hair, human semen, blood, urine, and breastmilk, and environmental samples such as sediment, soil, sewage sludge, air, biota, fish, mussels, surface water, and wastewater. The congeners prevailing in environmental samples, with soil being the essential matrix, are BDE 47, 99, and 100. BDE 28, 47, 99, 100, 153, 154, and 183 are more frequently detected in human tissues, whereas in sediment and soil, BDE 100 and 183 predominate. Generally, BDE 153 and 154 appear very often across different matrices. However, BDE 209 seems not frequently determined, owing to its tendency to quickly breakdown into smaller congeners. This paper carried out an overview of PBDEs in the environmental, human, and biota niches with their characteristics, physicochemical properties, and fate in the environment, human exposure, and health effects.

Effects of Fe-Mn oxide-modified biochar composite applications on phthalate esters (PAEs) accumulation in wheat grains and grain quality under PAEs-polluted brown soil

Phthalate esters (PAEs), such as dibutyl phthalate (DBP) and di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), are used extensively as additives and plasticizers, and have become ubiquitous in the environment. PAEs in the soil could have adverse effects on crop plants as well as humans via accumulations in food chain. Thus, it is important to explore strategies to reduce the bioavailability of phthalate esters. We investigated the effects of Fe-Mn oxide-modified biochar composite (FMBC) applications on the quality of wheat grown in DBP- and DEHP-polluted brown soil. The application of FMBC and biochar (BC) increased the wheat grain biomass by 9.71-223.01% and 5.40-120.15% in the DBP-polluted soil, and 10.52-186.21% and 4.50-99.53% in the DEHP-spiked soil in comparison to the controls. All FMBC treatments were better than the BC treatments, in terms of decreasing DBP and DEHP bioavailability for the wheat grains. The activities of the glutamine synthetase and glutamic-pyruvic transaminase in the flag leaves at the filling stage and of granule-bound starch synthase, soluble starch synthase, and adenosine diphosphate-glucose pyrophosphorylase in the grains at maturity increased significantly with increases in either the BC or FMBC applications. This, in turn, increased the starch, protein, and amino acid content in the wheat grains. Compared with the BC treatment, the FMBC amendment induced only slight increases in the aforementioned factors. This study offers novel insights into potential strategies for decreasing PAEs bioavailability in soil, with potential positive implications for crop quality and environmental health improvements.

Distributions, compositions, and ecological risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and phthalic acid esters in surface sediment of Songhua river, China

The distribution, composition, and ecological risk of 16 types of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and 6 types of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) in the surface sediment of Songhua river, northeast China, were investigated. The total weight of the PAHs (∑₁₆PAHs) varied from 226.70 to 7086.62 ng/g dry weight (dw), whereas that of the PAEs (∑₆PAEs) ranged from 819.44 to 24,035.39 ng/g dw. The dominant PAHs were four-membered ring PAHs, which varied from 18.65% to 78.10% of the total PAHs. The most abundant PAEs was di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate ester (DEHP), which accounted for 65.02-99.07% of the total PAEs, followed by di-n-butyl phthalate ranging from 1.50 to 55.43%. Pyrolytic origin was the dominant PAH source. Approximately 12.70% target PAHs in the Songhua river sediment exhibited moderate ecological risk with 23.49-1404.09 ng/g carcinogenic toxicity equivalent. DEHP in 80.95% of the sediment samples exceeded the effects range low, indicating its potential harmfulness to the aquatic environment.

Phthalate acid esters (PAEs) accumulation in coastal sediments from regions with different land use configuration along the Persian Gulf

Phthalate acid esters (PAEs) are widely used as plasticizers in various plastic products and have aroused considerable concern over their ubiquitous presence and potentially hazardous effects on the environment. This research provides the first data on PAEs distribution in the sediments of northern part of the Persian Gulf. To determine the concentration of 16 PAEs, 26 samples of sediments were collected from industrial stations (IS), urban stations (US), agricultural stations (AGS), and natural field stations (NS) from Asalouyeh Harbor coasts from Nov 2016 to Jan 2017. The mean values of Ʃ16PAEs in the samples taken from IS, AGS, US, and NS were 78.08, 11.69, 46.56, and 5.180 µg/g, respectively. The results indicated that the mean concentrations of Ʃ16PAEs in the samples taken from IS and AGS areas were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than the ones taken from US and NS areas. The order of PAEs concentrations in sediment samples were as di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), butylbenzyl phthalate (BBP), and di-n-octyl phthalate (DnOP), respectively. DEHP was detected in all collected samples and the mean ± SD of its concentration in the IS, US, AGS, and NS regions were as 28.15 ± 4.9, 4.040 ± 0.53, 11.58 ± 1.2, and 1.780 ± 0.78 µg/g, respectively. The major sources of PAEs in the sediments collected from the study region were associated with the industrial and agricultural activities. The findings of this study indicated that the sediments of the Asalouyeh coasts are heavily contaminated with PAEs. They have shown potential ecotoxicological effects on the aquatic organisms and benthic. Therefore, more attention should be paid to prediction of the marine ecosystem in this region by the authorities.

Flows, stocks, and emissions of DEHP products in Japan

The usage of products containing Bis (2‑ethylhexyl) Phthalate (DEHP) is widespread, mainly through the great variety of PVC products. However, DEHP has become a worldwide concern, due to the potential health and environmental risks it presents. In this study, material flow analysis and emission estimations for DEHP products in Japan, from 1948 to 2030, were performed. Moreover, an evaluation of the potentially damaging impacts on human health and the environment was completed through a lifecycle impact assessment approach. The analysis focused on three representative lifecycle phases - Production, Use and Treatment and Disposal. The peak flows of DEHP from Production to the Use phase were in 1996 with 285,300 tons for shipment and the stocks peaked in 2001 with 1,981,908 tons. Accordingly, in 2006 the peak of DEHP waste to the Treatment and disposal phase was 190,792 tons. The primary emissions were observed in the Use phase, due to the large stocks, with DEHP mostly being released to the pedosphere. The total emissions from the Use phase reached the maximum of 48,960 tons in 2000, whereas in the Production and Treatment and disposal phase it was 248 tons and 15 tons, respectively. Subsequently, concerning the evaluation of impacts, the damage to the human health was the most widespread impact, totaling 13,782 disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), compared with the damage to the ecosystems, with 0.12 species·year. Furthermore, the risk-risk tradeoffs between the lifecycle phases were clarified throughout the years.

Towards a systematic understanding of the dynamic fate of polychlorinated biphenyls in indoor, urban and rural environments

Indoor environments and urban areas are hubs of chemical stocks and emissions, which contaminate those indoor and urban areas as well as the surrounding rural areas. Here, we introduce a newly developed nested multimedia indoor-urban-rural chemical fate model, coupled with a substance flow analysis, aiming to provide an integrated and dynamic understanding of the mass distribution, concentrations, and major pathways of contaminants within and between indoor, urban and rural environments. The model is applied to simulate the emissions, transport and fate of polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners 28 and 153 in the Western Baltic drainage basin over time. Whereas >90% of PCBs were used in the urban outdoor environment, the model indicates that ~80% of emissions occurred indoors because of higher emission factors in open-end usage. Atmospheric advection is highly effective in transporting the bulk of the PCBs emitted indoors to urban (>85%) and rural (>75%) environments. The rural environment is identified as the main locale for accommodating (>80%) and removing (>50%) the emitted PCBs. Contamination of exposure-relevant compartments in the rural environment is anticipated to decrease slower than, and thus outlast, that in the indoor environment, which implies an increasing importance of the food chain accumulation in overall human exposure to PCBs over time. Our model demonstrates that, whereas the indoor environment contains an insignificant fraction of the total emissions remaining in the regional environment, it experiences orders of magnitude higher concentrations than the rural environment. Therefore, while including indoor and urban environments in modeling influences little the modeled overall chemical fate on a regional scale, it strongly affects modeling the human exposure associated with multimedia concentrations.

Occurrence, distribution, and ecological risks of phthalate esters in the seawater and sediment of Changjiang River Estuary and its adjacent area

A total of 133 seawater samples and 17 sediment samples were collected from 81 sampling sites in the Changjiang River Estuary and its adjacent area and were analyzed for 16 phthalate esters (PAEs). The Σ₁₆ PAE concentrations in the seawater and sediment samples ranged from 180.3ng·L^-1 to 3421ng·L^-1 and from 0.48μg·g^-1 to 29.94μg·g^-1dry weight (dw), respectively, with mean values of 943.6ng·L^-1 and 12.88μg·g^-1. The distribution of ∑₁₆PAE concentrations in the water column showed that PAE concentrations in the bottom samples were higher than those in the surface samples (except the transect C located inside the Changjiang River Estuary), with the maxima appearing in the bottom layer at the offshore stations. Among the 16 PAEs, di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP), and dibutyl phthalate (DnBP) dominated the PAEs, with 25.1%, 21.1%, and 18.9% of the Σ₁₆PAEs in seawater, respectively. The comparison of ∑₁₆PAEs and salinities in transects C and A6 suggested that the Changjiang River runoff was an important driving factor influencing the distribution of PAEs. DEHP concentrations in water samples and DEHP and DnBP concentrations in sediment samples exceeded the environmental risk levels (ERL), indicating their potential hazard to the ocean environment.

Associations of urinary phthalate metabolites with residential characteristics, lifestyles, and dietary habits among young children in Shanghai, China

Exposure to household phthalates has been reported to have adverse effects on children's health. In this paper, we used phthalate metabolites in the first morning urine as indicators of household phthalate exposures and examined their associations with residential characteristics, lifestyles and dietary habits among young children. During 2013-2014, we collected morning urines from children aged 5-10years in Shanghai, China and obtained the related information about analyzed factors in this study by questionnaires. Urinary phthalate metabolites were analyzed by isotope dilution-high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-heated electrospray ionization source (HESI) coupled with a triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. ANOVA, the Mann-Whitney or Kruskai-Wallis rank tests, and multivariate linear regression analyses were used to examine the target associations. Ten metabolites of seven phthalates in 434 urine samples were analyzed. The detection rates of eight metabolites (MiBP, MnBP, MEHP, MECPP, MEHHP, MEOHP, MEP, and MMP) were >90%, except for MBzP (51.2%), and MCHP with <10.0% of detection rate was not included in analyses. By multivariate linear regression analyses, factors significantly associated with higher concentrations of metabolites included non-usage household air cleaners (MEP and MEHP), changing the child's pillowcase less than one time a week (DEHP metabolites), dusting furniture in the child's bedroom less than three times a week (MMP and MnBP), using more plastic toys (DEHP metabolites and MEP), often having soft drinks (DEHP metabolites) and candies (MiBP). Our results indicated that phthalate exposures were common among Shanghai children and residential characteristics had less significant associations with urinary phthalate metabolites compared with lifestyles and dietary habits. Using less plastic toys, having less candies and soft drinks, using household air cleaner, as well as frequently changing the child's pillowcase and dusting furniture in the child's bedroom could reduce phthalate exposures among children.

Influence of indoor environmental factors on mass transfer parameters and concentrations of semi-volatile organic compounds

Semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) in indoor environments can partition among the gas phase, airborne particles, settled dust, and available surfaces. The mass transfer parameters of SVOCs, such as the mass transfer coefficient and the partition coefficient, are influenced by indoor environmental factors. Subsequently, indoor SVOC concentrations and thus occupant exposure can vary depending on environmental factors. In this review, the influence of six environmental factors, i.e., indoor temperature, humidity, ventilation, airborne particle concentration, source loading factor, and reactive chemistry, on the mass transfer parameters and indoor concentrations of SVOCs was analyzed and tentatively quantified. The results show that all mass transfer parameters vary depending on environmental factors. These variations are mostly characterized by empirical equations, particularly for humidity. Theoretical calculations of these parameters based on mass transfer mechanisms are available only for the emission of SVOCs from source surfaces when airborne particles are not present. All mass transfer parameters depend on the temperature. Humidity influences the partition of SVOCs among different phases and is associated with phthalate hydrolysis. Ventilation has a combined effect with the airborne particle concentration on SVOC emission and their mass transfer among different phases. Indoor chemical reactions can produce or eliminate SVOCs slowly. To better model the dynamic SVOC concentration indoors, the present review suggests studying the combined effect of environmental factors in real indoor environments. Moreover, interactions between indoor environmental factors and human activities and their influence on SVOC mass transfer processes should be considered.

A miniature bird-borne passive air sampler for monitoring halogenated flame retardants

Birds have been used intensively as biomonitors of halogenated flame retardants (HFRs), and several studies have reported elevated tissue concentrations and inter-individual variability for these contaminants. While diet is known to be an important exposure pathway for HFRs in birds, it has been suggested that exposure through air may represent an underestimated source of HFRs for certain species. However, a method was not available for measuring the atmospheric exposure of individual birds to HFRs or other semi-volatile contaminants. The goal of this study was to develop a bird-borne passive air sampler (PAS) enabling the determination of individual atmospheric exposure to gas- and particle-phase HFRs using the ring-billed gull (Larus delawarensis) nesting in the Montreal area (QC, Canada). The new miniaturized elliptical-shaped PAS (mean weight: 2.72g) was tested using two sorbent types during three exposure periods (one, two and three weeks). Results showed that PAS using polyurethane foam (PUF) combined with a glass fiber filter collected all major polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and exhibited better performance for collecting highly hydrophobic DecaBDE mixture congeners compared to the PAS using polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). Emerging HFRs including hexabromobenzene, Dechlorane 604 Component B, and Dechlorane plus (DP) isomers also were sampled by the PUF-based PAS. Sampling rates for most HFRs were comparable between the three exposure periods. This novel bird-borne PAS provides valuable information on the non-dietary exposure of free-ranging birds to HFRs.

Relationships between estimated flame retardant emissions and levels in indoor air and house dust

A significant number of consumer goods and building materials can act as emission sources of flame retardants (FRs) in the indoor environment. We investigate the relationship between the emission source strength and the levels of 19 brominated flame retardants (BFRs) and seven organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) in air and dust collected in 38 indoor microenvironments in Norway. We use modeling methods to back-calculate emission rates from indoor air and dust measurements and identify possible indications of an emission-to-dust pathway. Experimentally based emission estimates provide a satisfactory indication of the relative emission strength of indoor sources. Modeling results indicate an up to two orders of magnitude enhanced emission strength for OPFRs (median emission rates of 0.083 and 0.41 μg h^-1 for air-based and dust-based estimates) compared to BFRs (0.52 and 0.37 ng h^-1 median emission rates). A consistent emission-to-dust signal, defined as higher dust-based than air-based emission estimates, was identified for four of the seven OPFRs, but only for one of the 19 BFRs. It is concluded, however, that uncertainty in model input parameters could potentially lead to the false identification of an emission-to-dust signal.

Distribution of phthalate esters in agricultural soil with plastic film mulching in Shandong Peninsula, East China

The content of phthalate esters (PAEs) was investigated in 36 vegetable fields with plastic film mulching in Shandong Peninsula, East China. Soils at depths of 0-10 cm, 10-20 cm, and 20-40 cm were collected, and 16 PAEs were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. PAEs were detected in all the analyzed samples. The total contents of the 16 PAEs (Σ₁₆PAEs) ranged from 1.374 to 18.810 mg/kg, with an average of 6.470 mg/kg. Among the four areas of Shandong Peninsula, including Qingdao, Weihai, Weifang, and Yantai, the highest Σ₁₆PAE in the soil was observed in Weifang district (9.786 mg/kg), which is famous for large-scale vegetable production. Despite the significant differences among the Σ₁₆PAEs, the PAE compositions in soils with plastic film mulching in Shandong Peninsula were comparable. Diethyl phthalate (DEP), diisobutyl phthalate, and di(4-methyl-2-pentyl) phthalate were present in all the samples, whereas di-n-hexyl phthalate was detected only in Qingdao (∼1%) and dicyclohexyl phthalate was observed only in Weifang (5.7-8.2%) in low proportions. The ratios of dimethyl phthalate, DEP, and di-n-butyl phthalate, which exceeded allowable concentrations, were 63.9-100% at different soil depths, indicating high PAE pollution. The concentration of butyl benzyl phthalate detected only in Weifang exceeded the recommended allowable soil concentration. Overall, the high PAE content in the soil with plastic film mulching in Shandong Peninsula is an issue of concern because of the large amounts of plastic film used.

C(m)-History Method, a Novel Approach to Simultaneously Measure Source and Sink Parameters Important for Estimating Indoor Exposures to Phthalates

The concentration of a gas-phase semivolatile organic compound (SVOC) in equilibrium with its mass-fraction in the source material, y0, and the coefficient for partitioning of an SVOC between clothing and air, K, are key parameters for estimating emission and subsequent dermal exposure to SVOCs. Most of the available methods for their determination depend on achieving steady-state in ventilated chambers. This can be time-consuming and of variable accuracy. Additionally, no existing method simultaneously determines y0 and K in a single experiment. In this paper, we present a sealed-chamber method, using early-stage concentration measurements, to simultaneously determine y0 and K. The measurement error for the method is analyzed, and the optimization of experimental parameters is explored. Using this method, y0 for phthalates (DiBP, DnBP, and DEHP) emitted by two types of PVC flooring, coupled with K values for these phthalates partitioning between a cotton T-shirt and air, were measured at 25 and 32 °C (room and skin temperatures, respectively). The measured y0 values agree well with results obtained by alternate methods. The changes of y0 and K with temperature were used to approximate the changes in enthalpy, ΔH, associated with the relevant phase changes. We conclude with suggestions for further related research.

Assessment of Concentrations of Heavy Metals and Phthalates in Two Urban Rivers of the Northeast of Puerto Rico

Urbanization adjacent to rivers has increased in recent years and is considered a source of environmental contamination. The resulting increase in number of urban rivers in highly populated areas, such as the Caribbean island of Puerto Rico, has led to the appearance of synthetic as well as naturally occurring chemicals not previously observed nor regularly monitored in freshwater habitats. Some of these chemicals, such as heavy metals and plasticizers, have been shown to affect endocrine, respiratory, and nervous system function in animals and humans, even at relatively low concentrations. The purpose of this study was to measure concentrations of such emergent contaminants on rivers of urbanized areas on the northeast of Puerto Rico, as one element in the assessment of the impact of urbanism on water quality in these communities. To accomplish this, we used Inductively Coupled Plasma and Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry to measure amounts of heavy metals and phthalates, respectively, in superficial water of three rivers of Puerto Rico: Mameyes (non-urban), Río Piedras (urban river without a dam), and La Plata (urban river with a dam). The urban rivers had significantly higher concentrations of heavy metals arsenic, barium, cadmium, manganese, and antimony, when compared with the reference non-urban river. Manganese was the only metal found in concentrations higher than limits established by the EPA for drinking water. Of eight phthalates amenable to measurement with the chosen protocol and instrumentation, only dibutyl phthalate was detected, only in the La Plata river, and at concentrations ranging from 3 to 8 parts-per-billion. These findings suggest that urbanism close to rivers of Puerto Rico is likely having an impact on water quality and thus further study to identify the potential sources, as well as the inclusion of these emergent contaminants on the list of chemicals regularly monitored by government agencies is justified.

Biodegradation of Decabromodiphenyl Ether (BDE-209) by Crude Enzyme Extract from Pseudomonas aeruginosa

The biodegradation effect and mechanism of decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209) by crude enzyme extract from Pseudomonas aeruginosa were investigated. The results demonstrated that crude enzyme extract exhibited obviously higher degradation efficiency and shorter biodegradation time than Pseudomonas aeruginosa itself. Under the optimum conditions of pH 9.0, 35 °C and protein content of 2000 mg/L, 92.77% of the initial BDE-209 (20 mg/L) was degraded after 5 h. A BDE-209 biodegradation pathway was proposed on the basis of the biodegradation products identified by GC-MS analysis. The biodegradation mechanism showed that crude enzyme extract degraded BDE-209 into lower brominated PBDEs and OH-PBDEs through debromination and hydroxylation of the aromatic rings.

Reliable quantification of phthalates in environmental matrices (air, water, sludge, sediment and soil): a review

Because of their widespread application, phthalates or phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are ubiquitous in the environment. Their presence has attracted considerable attention due to their potential impacts on ecosystem functioning and on public health, so their quantification has become a necessity. Various extraction procedures as well as gas/liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry detection techniques are found as suitable for reliable detection of such compounds. However, PAEs are ubiquitous in the laboratory environment including ambient air, reagents, sampling equipment, and various analytical devices, that induces difficult analysis of real samples with a low PAE background. Therefore, accurate PAE analysis in environmental matrices is a challenging task. This paper reviews the extensive literature data on the techniques for PAE quantification in natural media. Sampling, sample extraction/pretreatment and detection for quantifying PAEs in different environmental matrices (air, water, sludge, sediment and soil) have been reviewed and compared. The concept of "green analytical chemistry" for PAE determination is also discussed. Moreover useful information about the material preparation and the procedures of quality control and quality assurance are presented to overcome the problem of sample contamination and these encountered due to matrix effects in order to avoid overestimating PAE concentrations in the environment.

Occurrence, fate, behavior and ecotoxicological state of phthalates in different environmental matrices

Because of their large and widespread application, phthalates or phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are ubiquitous in all the environmental compartements. They have been widely detected throughout the worldwide environment. Indoor air where people spend 65-90% of their time is also highly contaminated by various PAEs released from plastics, consumer products as well as ambient suspended particulate matter. Because of their widespread application, PAEs are the most common chemicals that humans are in contact with daily. Based on various exposure mechanisms, including the ingestion of food, drinking water, dust/soil, air inhalation and dermal exposure the daily intake of PAEs may reach values as high as 70 μg/kg/day. PAEs are involved in endocrine disrupting effects, namely, upon reproductive physiology in different species of fish and mammals. They also present a variety of additional toxic effects for many other species including terrestrial and aquatic fauna and flora. Therefore, their presence in the environment has attracted considerable attention due to their potential impacts on ecosystem functioning and on public health. This paper is a synthesis of the extensive literature data on behavior, transport, fate and ecotoxicological state of PAEs in environmental matrices: air, water, sediment, sludge, wastewater, soil, and biota. First, the origins and physicochemical properties of PAEs that control the behavior, transport and fate in the environment are reviewed. Second, the compilation of data on transport and fate, adverse environmental and human health effects, legislation, restrictions, and ecotoxicological state of the environment based on PAEs is presented.

Occurrence of phthalate diesters in particulate and vapor phases in indoor air and implications for human exposure in Albany, New York, USA

Phthalate diesters are used as plasticizers in a wide range of consumer products. Because phthalates have been shown in laboratory animal studies to be toxic, human exposure to these chemicals is a matter of concern. Nevertheless, little is known about inhalation exposure to phthalates in the United States. In this study, occurrence of nine phthalates was determined in 60 indoor air samples collected in 2014 in Albany, New York, USA. Airborne particulate and vapor phase samples were collected from various sampling locations by use of a low-volume air sampler. The median concentrations of nine phthalates in air samples collected from homes, offices, laboratories, schools, salons (hair and nail salons), and public places were 732, 143, 170, 371, 2600, and 354 ng/m(3), respectively. Diethyl phthalate (DEP) was found at the highest concentrations, which ranged from 4.83 to 2250 ng/m(3) (median 152) followed by di-n-butyl phthalate, which ranged from 4.05 to 1170 ng/m(3) (median 63.3). The median inhalation exposure dose to phthalates was estimated at 0.845, 0.423, 0.203, 0.089, and 0.070 µg/kg-bw/d for infants, toddlers, children, teenagers, and adults, respectively. Inhalation is an important pathway of human exposure to DEP.

Emerging flame retardants, PBDEs, and HBCDDs in indoor and outdoor media in Stockholm, Sweden

Dust, indoor air, outgoing air from ventilation systems, outdoor air, and soil were sampled in and around Stockholm, Sweden during the winter and spring 2012. The concentrations of several emerging flame retardants (EFRs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and isomers of hexabromocyclododecane (HBCDD) were measured. The most commonly found EFR was 1,2-dibromo-4-(1,2 dibromoethyl)cyclohexane (TBECH or DBE-DBCH), which was found in nearly all indoor, ventilation, and outdoor air samples, most dust samples, but not in soil samples. Other frequently detected EFRs included pentabromotoluene (PBT), hexabromobenzene (HBB), 2,3,4,5-tetrabromo-ethylhexylbenzoate (EHTBB), 2,3,4,5-tetrabromo-bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (BEH-TEBP), and decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE). PBDE concentrations were significantly lower in air and dust samples compared to a previous study in Stockholm. In outdoor air, DBE-DBCH, PBT, EHTBB, DBDPE, and PBDEs showed an "urban pulse" with concentrations increasing as samples were taken in more urban areas compared to rural areas. These EFRs show similar environmental behavior as PBDEs. Higher brominated BDEs showed this same urban pulse in soil but lower brominated BDEs did not. Air-soil fugacity fractions were calculated, and these indicated that most compounds are undergoing net deposition from atmosphere to soil, with the higher brominated PBDEs furthest from equilibrium.

Stocks and flows of PBDEs in products from use to waste in the U.S. and Canada from 1970 to 2020

The time-dependent stock of PBDEs contained in in-use products (excluding building materials and large vehicles) was estimated for the U.S. and Canada from 1970 to 2020 based on product consumption patterns, PBDE contents, and product lifespan. The stocks of penta- and octaBDE peaked in in-use products at 17,000 (95% confidence interval: 6000-70,000) and 4,000 (1,000-50,000) tonnes in 2004, respectively, and for decaBDE at 140,000 (40,000-300,000) tonnes in 2008. Products dominating PBDE usage were polyurethane foam used in furniture (65% of pentaBDE), casings of electrical and electronic equipment or EEE (80% of octaBDE), and EEE and automotive seating (35% of decaBDE for each category). The largest flow of PBDEs in products, excluding automotive sector, to the waste phase occurred between 2005 and 2008 at ∼10,000 tonnes per year. Total consumption of penta-, octa-, and decaBDE from 1970 to 2020 in products considered was estimated at ∼46,000, ∼25,000, and ∼380,000 tonnes, respectively. Per capita usage was estimated at 10-250, 10-150, and 200-2000 g·capita(-1)·y(-1) for penta-, octa-, and decaBDE, respectively, over the time span. Considering only the first use (no reuse and/or storage) of PBDE-containing products, approximately 60% of the stock of PBDEs in 2014 or ∼70,000 tonnes, of which 95% is decaBDE, will remain in the use phase in 2020. Total emissions to air of all PBDEs from the in-use product stock was estimated at 70-700 tonnes between 1970 and 2020, with annual emissions of 0.4-4 tonnes·y(-1) for each of penta- and octaBDE and 0.35-3.5 tonnes·y(-1) for decaBDE in 2014.

Occurrence and distribution of phthalate esters in riverine sediments from the Pearl River Delta region, South China

Sixty-eight sediment samples collected from Dongjiang River, Xijiang River, Beijiang River and Zhujiang River in the Pearl River Delta (PRD) region, Southern China, were analyzed for 16 phthalate esters (PAEs). PAEs were detected in all riverine sediments analyzed, which indicate that PAEs are ubiquitous environmental contaminants. The Σ16PAEs concentrations in riverine sediments in the PRD region ranged from 0.567 to 47.3 μg g(-1) dry weight (dw), with the mean and median concentrations of 5.34 μg g(-1) dw and 2.15 μg g(-1) dw, respectively. Elevated PAEs concentrations in riverine sediments in the PRD region were found in the highly urbanized and industrialized areas. Of the 16 PAEs, diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) dominated the PAEs, with the mean and median concentrations of 1.12 μg g(-1)dw, 0.420 μg g(-1) dw and 3.72 μg g(-1) dw, and 0.429 μg g(-1) dw, 0.152 μg g(-1) dw and 1.55 μg g(-1) dw, respectively, and accounted for 94.2-99.7% of the Σ16PAEs concentrations. Influenced by local sources and the properties of PAEs, a gradient trend of concentrations and a fractionation of composition from more to less industrialized and urbanized areas were discovered. As compared to the results from other studies, the riverine sediments in the PRD region were severely contaminated with PAEs. Information about PAEs contamination status and its effect on the aquatic organisms in the PRD region may deserve further attention.