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Castilhos ZC, Domingos LMB. A picture of artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) in Brazil and its mercury emissions and releases. ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY AND HEALTH 2024; 46:101. [PMID: 38429439 DOI: 10.1007/s10653-024-01881-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 01/23/2024] [Indexed: 03/03/2024]
Abstract
This study presents a picture of ASGM in Brazil and prospective numbers on mercury emissions and releases in 2016, when the country declared production of about 90 tonnes of gold, of which circa 25 tonnes came from ASGM. However, it is also necessary to consider the illegal production of ASGM which is estimated to vary between 10% and eight times more than the legal production. The proposed method included: organization of spatial data on legal ASGM output, stakeholder identification and meetings, mercury metallurgical balance, quantitative measurement of mercury in the atmosphere and qualitative social aspects such as the miners' economic dependence on the managers and scenarios of illegal ASGM annual production. The main results revealed that the initial mercury (Hg)-gold (Au) production ratio was higher for the primary whole ore than for the concentrate secondary ore, which is the most frequent type of Brazilian ASGM. The amalgam filtering technique followed by mercury recovery is routine, decreasing the Hg releases to tailings ponds or to soil and water bodies. The mercury emissions by thermal decomposition of amalgam are independent of the initial mercury mass, depending only on the mercury in the amalgam and the (adequate) use or not of emission control systems. Illegal activities reduce the availability and proper use of these systems, resulting in higher emissions. Mercury emissions from ASGM in Brazil may increase the global mercury emissions estimates, while their mercury releases may represent a marginal increase. As the mercury emitted may be trapped by the rainforests added to the mercury released, the environmental contamination may pose health risks to Amazonian population, which requires immediate action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuleica Carmen Castilhos
- Centre for Mineral Technology (CETEM/MCTI), Av. Pedro Calmon, 900, Cidade Universitária, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, 21941-908, Brazil.
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Alencar Meira da Silva H, Davée Guimarães JR. Mercury cyanide complexes and their relevance as environmental contaminants. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 350:141054. [PMID: 38160953 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.141054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Revised: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 12/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
This review addresses the formation and relevance of mercury cyanide complexes as environmental contaminants. Gold extraction is traditionally carried out through the process of mercury amalgamation (Hg) due to its simplicity and low cost. However, this process is inefficient, capturing only about 30% of the gold present in the processed material. Additionally, mercury is toxic, mobile, and capable of accumulating in aquatic ecosystems, leading to its prohibition in several countries. As an alternative, cyanidation has been widely used in gold extraction. However, the frequent combination of Hg amalgamation with cyanidation can result in the formation of mercury cyanide complexes, which can be released into local water bodies, potentially impacting human health and the environment. This article reviews the existing knowledge of these complexes and highlights the remaining gaps in understanding their environmental behavior. It also emphasizes the need to address concerns related to the formation of these complexes and seek solutions to minimize their negative impacts. Furthermore, the article highlights the lack of updates in the literature regarding the impacts of cyanidation and the limited availability of comprehensive information on the topic. It is essential to conduct updated research in this area to advance knowledge and promote safer and more responsible practices in the mining industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henrique Alencar Meira da Silva
- Laboratório de Traçadores, IBCCF, Universidade Federal Do Rio de Janeiro, Av. Carlos Chagas Filho 373, CEP, 21941-902, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Jean Remy Davée Guimarães
- Laboratório de Traçadores, IBCCF, Universidade Federal Do Rio de Janeiro, Av. Carlos Chagas Filho 373, CEP, 21941-902, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
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Sardenne F, Le Loc'h F, Bodin N, Mve-Beh JH, Munaron JM, Mbega JD, Nzigou AR, Sadio O, Budzinski H, Leboulanger C. Persistent organic pollutants and trace metals in selected marine organisms from the Akanda National Park, Gabon (Central Africa). MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2024; 199:116009. [PMID: 38217912 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.116009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2023] [Revised: 12/08/2023] [Accepted: 12/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2024]
Abstract
Akanda National Park (ANP) is composed of mangrove ecosystems bordering Libreville, Gabon's capital. The contamination of aquatic resources from the ANP by persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and trace metals (TMs) was never evaluated. To provide a basis for their monitoring in the ANP, five species (two fish, two mollusks, and one crustacean) were analyzed from three sampling sites in 2017. Contamination levels for POPs and TMs were below maximum acceptable limits for seafood, including Cd and Pb. No DDT was found in any sample. Inter-specific differences were more obvious than the differences among sites, although the results may be biased by an unbalanced sampling design. The oyster Crassostrea gasar was the most contaminated species, making this species a good candidate to assess environmental contamination in the area. The studied species also contained essential elements, such as Fe, Zn and Mn at interesting levels in a nutritional point of view.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fany Sardenne
- IRD, Univ Brest, CNRS, Ifremer, LEMAR, IUEM, F-29280 Plouzané, France.
| | - François Le Loc'h
- IRD, Univ Brest, CNRS, Ifremer, LEMAR, IUEM, F-29280 Plouzané, France
| | - Nathalie Bodin
- Sustainable Ocean Seychelles, BeauBelle, Mahé, Seychelles
| | - Jean-Hervé Mve-Beh
- IRD, Univ Brest, CNRS, Ifremer, LEMAR, IUEM, F-29280 Plouzané, France; Institut de Recherches Agronomiques et Forestières, CENAREST (Laboratoire d'Hydrobiologie et d'Ichtyologie), BP 2246 Libreville, Gabon
| | | | - Jean-Daniel Mbega
- Institut de Recherches Agronomiques et Forestières, CENAREST (Laboratoire d'Hydrobiologie et d'Ichtyologie), BP 2246 Libreville, Gabon
| | | | - Oumar Sadio
- IRD, Univ Brest, CNRS, Ifremer, LEMAR, Dakar, Sénégal
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Dube T, Dube T, Dalu T, Gxokwe S, Marambanyika T. Assessment of land use and land cover, water nutrient and metal concentration related to illegal mining activities in an Austral semi-arid river system: A remote sensing and multivariate analysis approach. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 907:167919. [PMID: 37879464 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Revised: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023]
Abstract
The mining sector in various countries, particularly in the sub-Saharan African region, faces significant impact from the emergence of small-scale unlicensed artisanal mines. This trend is influenced by the rising demand and prices for minerals, along with prevalent poverty levels. Thus, the detrimental impacts of these artisanal mines on the natural environment (i.e., rivers) have remained poorly understood particularly in the Zimbabwean context. To understand the consequences of this situation, a study was conducted in the Umzingwane Catchment, located in southern Zimbabwe, focusing on the variations in water nutrient and metal concentrations in rivers affected by illegal mining activities along their riparian zones. Using multi-year Sentinel-2 composite data and the random forest machine learning algorithm on the Google Earth Engine cloud-computing platform, we mapped the spatial distribution of illegal mines in the affected regions and seven distinct land use classes, including artisanal mines, bare surfaces, settlements, official mines, croplands, and natural vegetation, with an acceptable overall and class accuracies of ±70 % were identified. Artisanal mines were found to be located along rivers and this was attributed to their large water requirements needed during the mining process. The water quality analysis revealed elevated nutrient concentrations, such as ammonium and nitrate (range 0.10-20.0 mg L-1), which could be attributed to mine drainage from the use of ammonium nitrate explosives during mining activities. Additionally, the prevalence of croplands in the area may have potentially contributed to increased nutrient concentrations. The principal component analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis revealed three clusters, with one of these clusters showing parameters like Ca, Mg, K, Hg and Na, which are usually associated with mineral gypsum found in the drainage of artisanal mines in the selected rivers. Cluster 2 consisted of B, Cu, Fe, Pb, and Mn, which are likely from the natural environment and finally, cluster 3 contained As, Cd, Cr, and Zn, which were likely associated with both legal and illegal mining operations. These findings provide essential insights into the health of the studied river system and the impacts of human activities in the region. They further serve as a foundation for developing and implementing regulatory measures aimed at protecting riverine systems, in line with sustainable development goal 15.1 which focuses on preserving and conserving terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems, including rivers. By acting on this information, authorities can work towards safeguarding these vital natural resources and promoting sustainable development in the area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thandekile Dube
- Institute for Water Studies, Department of Earth Science, University of the Western Cape, Bellville 7535, South Africa.
| | - Timothy Dube
- Institute for Water Studies, Department of Earth Science, University of the Western Cape, Bellville 7535, South Africa
| | - Tatenda Dalu
- Aquatic Systems Research Group, School of Biology and Environmental Sciences, University of Mpumalanga, Nelspruit 1200, South Africa.
| | - Siyamthanda Gxokwe
- Institute for Water Studies, Department of Earth Science, University of the Western Cape, Bellville 7535, South Africa
| | - Thomas Marambanyika
- Department of Geography, Environmental Sustainability and Resilience Building, Midlands State University, Gweru, Zimbabwe
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Sitarska M, Traczewska T, Hołtra A, Zamorska-Wojdyła D, Filarowska W, Hanus-Lorenz B. Removal of mercury from water by phytoremediation process with Salvinia natans(L.) All. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:85494-85507. [PMID: 37389751 PMCID: PMC10404195 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-27533-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/01/2023]
Abstract
Mercury contamination from human activities is a severe environmental problem. The low cost of rhizofiltration of heavy metal-contaminated environments is causing an increasing interest in these technologies. The present study demonstrates the effectiveness of mercury removal from water by phytoremediation using S. natans. Plants cultured and collected from the environment were used. The study used Hoagland's liquid medium contaminated with mercury: 0.15, 0.20, and 0.30. The bioconcentration factor obtained was 275-780. The relative growth rate was up to 0.12 g/gd and was much better for cultured plants than those collected from the environment. The removal rate of toxic metal was up to 94%. Total protein increased for cultures plants by up to 84%, while it decreased by up to 30% for those taken from the environment. Total chlorophyll for cultured plants decreased by up to 54%, which could be due to the toxic effect of the metal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Sitarska
- Faculty of Geoengineering, Mining and Geology, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże S. Wyspiańskiego 27, Wrocław, 50-370 Lower Silesia Poland
| | - Teodora Traczewska
- Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże S. Wyspiańskiego 27, Wrocław, 50-370 Lower Silesia Poland
| | - Anna Hołtra
- Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże S. Wyspiańskiego 27, Wrocław, 50-370 Lower Silesia Poland
| | - Dorota Zamorska-Wojdyła
- Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże S. Wyspiańskiego 27, Wrocław, 50-370 Lower Silesia Poland
| | - Wiktoria Filarowska
- Department, US Pharmacia Sp. z o.o., Ziebicka 40, Wrocław, 50-507 Lower Silesia Poland
| | - Beata Hanus-Lorenz
- Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże S. Wyspiańskiego 27, Wrocław, 50-370 Lower Silesia Poland
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Ndzana CE, Emmanuel Mvondo VY, Tchouta KD, Ngatcha BN. Assessment of the impact of small-scale mining on soil contamination by mercury and hydrocarbons in the kadey catchment (East Cameroon). Heliyon 2023; 9:e18786. [PMID: 37576211 PMCID: PMC10415891 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e18786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2023] [Revised: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The objective of the present study was to assess soil contamination by mercury and hydrocarbon products used in gold mining in the Kadey catchment area. The results obtained show that gold mining by the small mine is the cause of chemical contamination of the soil caused by hydrocarbon products with concentrations 800 times higher than the threshold value on certain points of the former mining sites. The use of mercury has led to an increase in its concentration to values that are still below the critical thresholds. It also appears from this work that organic matter plays a very important role in the retention of mercury on the soil surface. In the case of hydrocarbons are concerned, although high concentrations above are found exclusively at the surface, the rainfall contributes to their infiltration into the soil and to a horizontal redistribution of the contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles Eloundou Ndzana
- Ministry of Mines, Industry and Technological Development, Yaounde, Cameroon
- University of Ngaoundéré, Faculty of Science, Department of Earth Sciences, Ngaoundere, Cameroon
| | | | - Kemgang Dongmo Tchouta
- University of Ngaoundéré, Faculty of Science, Department of Earth Sciences, Ngaoundere, Cameroon
| | - Benjamin Ngounou Ngatcha
- University of Ngaoundéré, Faculty of Science, Department of Earth Sciences, Ngaoundere, Cameroon
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Fisher JA, Schneider L, Fostier AH, Guerrero S, Guimarães JRD, Labuschagne C, Leaner JJ, Martin LG, Mason RP, Somerset V, Walters C. A synthesis of mercury research in the Southern Hemisphere, part 2: Anthropogenic perturbations. AMBIO 2023; 52:918-937. [PMID: 36952094 PMCID: PMC10073395 DOI: 10.1007/s13280-023-01840-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2022] [Revised: 12/11/2022] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Environmental mercury (Hg) contamination is a global concern requiring action at national scales. Scientific understanding and regulatory policies are underpinned by global extrapolation of Northern Hemisphere Hg data, despite historical, political, and socioeconomic differences between the hemispheres that impact Hg sources and sinks. In this paper, we explore the primary anthropogenic perturbations to Hg emission and mobilization processes that differ between hemispheres and synthesize current understanding of the implications for Hg cycling. In the Southern Hemisphere (SH), lower historical production of Hg and other metals implies lower present-day legacy emissions, but the extent of the difference remains uncertain. More use of fire and higher deforestation rates drive re-mobilization of terrestrial Hg, while also removing vegetation that would otherwise provide a sink for atmospheric Hg. Prevalent Hg use in artisanal and small-scale gold mining is a dominant source of Hg inputs to the environment in tropical regions. Meanwhile, coal-fired power stations continue to be a significant Hg emission source and industrial production of non-ferrous metals is a large and growing contributor. Major uncertainties remain, hindering scientific understanding and effective policy formulation, and we argue for an urgent need to prioritize research activities in under-sampled regions of the SH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenny A. Fisher
- Centre for Atmospheric Chemistry, School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of Wollongong, Northfields Avenue, Wollongong, NSW 2522 Australia
| | - Larissa Schneider
- College of Asia and the Pacific, Australian National University, Coombs Bld 9 Fellows Rd, Acton, Canberra, ACT 2601 Australia
| | - Anne-Hélène Fostier
- Instituto de Química/Unicamp, Rua Josué de Castro, s/n – Cidade Universitária, Campinas, SP 13083-970 Brazil
| | - Saul Guerrero
- College of Asia and the Pacific, Australian National University, Coombs Bld 9 Fellows Rd, Acton, Canberra, ACT 2601 Australia
| | - Jean Remy Davée Guimarães
- Lab. de Traçadores, Instituto de Biofísica, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Bloco G, Av. Carlos Chagas Filho 373, Ilha do Fundão, Rio de Janeiro, CEP 21941-902 Brazil
| | - Casper Labuschagne
- South African Weather Service c/o CSIR Environmentek, 11 Jan Cilliers Street, Stellenbosch, 7599 South Africa
| | - Joy J. Leaner
- Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning, Western Cape Government, Property Building, 1 Dorp Street, Cape Town, 8001 Western Cape South Africa
| | - Lynwill G. Martin
- South African Weather Service c/o CSIR Environmentek, 11 Jan Cilliers Street, Stellenbosch, 7599 South Africa
- Atmospheric Chemistry Research Group, Chemical Resource Beneficiation, North-West University, Potchefstroom, 2520 South Africa
| | - Robert P. Mason
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Connecticut, 1080 Shennecossett Road, Groton, CT 06340 USA
| | - Vernon Somerset
- Department of Chemistry, CPUT, CPUT Bellville Campus, Bellville, 7535 Western Cape South Africa
| | - Chavon Walters
- Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, 11 Jan Cilliers Street, Stellenbosch, 7599 South Africa
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da Silva HAM, Kasper D, Marshall BG, Veiga MM, Guimaraes JRD. Acute ecotoxicological effects of Hg(CN) 2 in Danio rerio (zebrafish). ECOTOXICOLOGY (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2023; 32:429-437. [PMID: 37055677 DOI: 10.1007/s10646-023-02651-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) is the largest source of anthropogenic Hg emissions on the planet. In addition, Hg-contaminated tailings are often reprocessed with sodium cyanide (NaCN) to extract the residual gold remaining in the material. This leads to the formation of mercury cyanide (Hg(CN)2) complexes, which are often discharged in untreated form into local drainages, leading to large amounts of free cyanide being released. However, data on mercury-cyanide interactions are scarce. In this study, we investigated the impact of cyanide and Hg bioavailability in zebrafish when added as Hg(CN)2. Different concentrations of Hg(CN)2 and NaCN were used, leading to an LC50 of 0.53 mg.L-1 for NaCN and 0.16 mg.L-1 for Hg(CN)2. Analyzing free cyanide concentrations in aquarium water, >40% dissociation was observed for NaCN and about 5% for Hg(CN)2. The accumulation of total Hg (THg) in the brain, gills, muscle and kidney was quantified. All fish exposed to Hg(CN)2 had higher THg levels than their controls and kidney was the tissue with higher Hg(CN)2 accumulation. Histological effects on the kidney and gills of both cyanides in D. rerio tissues were investigated, suggesting renal alterations in fish exposed to Hg(CN)2 and showing hyperplasia in the gills of animals exposed to NaCN and Hg(CN)2. The results alert to the risks of the presence of these complexes in aquatic environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henrique Alencar Meira da Silva
- Laboratório de Traçadores em Ciências Ambientais Wolfgang Christian Pfeiffer, IBCCF, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Av. Carlos Chagas Filho 373, CEP 21941-902, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
| | - Daniele Kasper
- Laboratório de Traçadores em Ciências Ambientais Wolfgang Christian Pfeiffer, IBCCF, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Av. Carlos Chagas Filho 373, CEP 21941-902, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Bruce G Marshall
- Norman B. Keevil Institute of Mining Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Marcello M Veiga
- Norman B. Keevil Institute of Mining Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Jean Remy Davée Guimaraes
- Laboratório de Traçadores em Ciências Ambientais Wolfgang Christian Pfeiffer, IBCCF, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Av. Carlos Chagas Filho 373, CEP 21941-902, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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Keane S, Bernaudat L, Davis KJ, Stylo M, Mutemeri N, Singo P, Twala P, Mutemeri I, Nakafeero A, Etui ID. Mercury and artisanal and small-scale gold mining: Review of global use estimates and considerations for promoting mercury-free alternatives. AMBIO 2023; 52:833-852. [PMID: 36897513 PMCID: PMC10073365 DOI: 10.1007/s13280-023-01843-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2022] [Revised: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) is present in over 80 countries, employing about 15 million miners and serving as source of livelihood for millions more. The sector is estimated to be the largest emitter of mercury globally. The Minamata Convention on Mercury seeks to reduce and, where feasible, eliminate mercury use in the ASGM. However, the total quantity of mercury used in ASGM globally is still highly uncertain, and the adoption of mercury-free technologies has been limited. This paper presents an overview of new data, derived from Minamata ASGM National Action Plan submissions, that can contribute to refining estimates of mercury use in ASGM, and then assesses technologies that can support the phase out mercury use in ASGM while increasing gold recovery. The paper concludes with a discussion of social and economic barriers to adoption of these technologies, illustrated by a case study from Uganda.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Keane
- NRDC, 1152 15th St, NW, Suite 300, Washington, DC 20005 USA
| | - Ludovic Bernaudat
- UN Environment Programme, 8-14 Avenue de la Paix, 1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland
| | - Kenneth J. Davis
- UN Environment Programme, 8-14 Avenue de la Paix, 1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland
| | - Malgorzata Stylo
- UN Environment Programme, 8-14 Avenue de la Paix, 1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland
| | - Nellia Mutemeri
- University of Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, WITS, Johannesburg, 2050 South Africa
| | | | - Pontsho Twala
- School of Mining Engineering, University of Witwatersrand, Private Bag X3, Johannesburg, 2050 South Africa
| | | | - Anne Nakafeero
- NEMA House, Plot 17, 19 & 21, Jinja Road, P. O. Box 22255, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Imelda Dossou Etui
- UN Environment Programme, 8-14 Avenue de la Paix, 1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland
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Abdelaal A, Sultan M, Abotalib AZ, Bedair M, Krishnamurthy RV, Elhebiry M. Emerging mercury and methylmercury contamination from new artisanal and small-scale gold mining along the Nile Valley, Egypt. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:52514-52534. [PMID: 36829096 PMCID: PMC10119075 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-25895-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The past decade witnessed the initiation and boom of the Artisanal and Small-scale Gold Mining (ASGM) activities in the hyper-arid southern Egypt. The ores are mined in the Eastern Desert and then transported to the densely populated farming communities in the Nile Valley, where the river provides the water resources needed for ore processing. In search for economic benefits, the poorly educated farmers with limited technical resources transformed their cultivated lands into ASGM operations, exposing themselves, their families, the residents, and the Nile ecosystems to several environmental and occupational health problems. Using integrated remote sensing, field, geochemical, and isotopic analyses, we report the first inventory of ASGM-related total mercury (THg) and methylmercury (MeHg) levels in tailings, amalgamation-tailing ponds, and surface and groundwater with emphasis on the Edfu city and its surroundings. The field and remote sensing-based mapping of ASGM activities reveals clustering around the Nile waterways and suggests interaction of Hg contamination sources with their surrounding receptors. Common ASGM practices include release of contaminated water from unlined amalgamation-tailing ponds into irrigation and drainage canals, and spreading of tailings over cultivated soils. In a short period (10 years), the released Hg contaminated multiple media, including the surface water, the shallow and deep aquifers, and possibly the soil, crops, and livestock. THg levels in amalgamation-tailing ponds (1200-8470 ng/L) are fourfold higher than US EPA and eightfold the WHO thresholds. The contaminated waters released from amalgamation-tailing ponds raised THg levels in surface water (irrigation canals: 50-100 ng/L; drainage canals: THg: > 200 ng/L) and groundwater (shallow and deep aquifers: 80-500 ng/L). Our findings highlight the need to extend the adopted approach to cover the entire length of the Nile River and its valley and the importance of conducting awareness campaigns to educate residents and health care providers about potential ASGM-related environmental and health hazards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Abdelaal
- Environmental Sciences Department, Faculty of Science, Port Said University, Port Said, 42526, Egypt
| | - Mohamed Sultan
- Department of Geological and Environmental Sciences, Earth Sciences Remote Sensing (ESRS) Facility, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI, 49008, USA.
| | - Abotalib Z Abotalib
- Department of Geology, National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences, Cairo, 1564, Egypt
- Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | | | - R V Krishnamurthy
- Department of Geological and Environmental Sciences, Earth Sciences Remote Sensing (ESRS) Facility, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI, 49008, USA
| | - Mohamed Elhebiry
- Department of Geological and Environmental Sciences, Earth Sciences Remote Sensing (ESRS) Facility, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI, 49008, USA
- Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Cairo, 11884, Egypt
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11
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Singo J, Moyo D, Isunju JB, Bose-O’Reilly S, Steckling-Muschack N, Becker J, Mamuse A. Health and Safety Risk Mitigation among Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Miners in Zimbabwe. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:14352. [PMID: 36361232 PMCID: PMC9659187 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192114352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2022] [Revised: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) is often associated with no or compromised attention to health and safety. Although headlines of fatal accidents in Zimbabwe characterise ASGM, little attention is paid to prevention strategies. This study, therefore, explores health and safety risk mitigation in ASGM in Zimbabwe to inform prevention strategies. A qualitative design was used with focus group discussions and in-depth interviews. Data were analysed using thematic analysis, coding, and descriptive statistics. Reported factors contributing to compromised health and safety included immediate causes, workplace factors, ASM related factors, and contextual factors, with interconnectedness between the causal factors. In addition, factors related to ASGM were significant. For risk mitigation, formalisation, organisation of risk reduction, behaviour change, and enforcement of prevention strategies is proposed. A multi-causal analysis is recommended for risk assessment and accident investigation. A multi-stakeholder approach could be considered for risk mitigation including community and public health interventions. However, risk mitigation has been characterised by gaps and weaknesses such as lacking ASM policy, lack of capital, poor enforcement, negative perceptions, and non-compliance. Therefore, we recommend addressing the threats associated with health and safety mitigation to ensure health and safety protection in ASGM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josephine Singo
- Centre for International Health, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Ziemssenstr. 5, 80336 Munich, Germany
- Devsol Consulting, Clock Tower, Kampala P.O. Box 73201, Uganda
- Exceed Institute of Safety Management and Technology, Kampala P.O. Box 72212, Uganda
| | - Dingani Moyo
- School of Public Health, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, WITS, Johannesburg 2050, South Africa
- Faculty of Medicine, National University of Science and Technology, Ascot, Bulawayo P.O. Box AC 939, Zimbabwe
- Faculty of Medicine, Midlands State University, Private Bag 9055, 263, Senga Road, Gweru P.O. Box 9055, Zimbabwe
| | - John Bosco Isunju
- Disease Control and Environmental Health Department, School of Public Health, Makerere University, Kampala P.O. Box 7072, Uganda
| | - Stephan Bose-O’Reilly
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational, Social, and Environmental Medicine, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Ziemssenstr. 5, 80336 Munich, Germany
- Department of Public Health, Health Services Research and Health Technology Assessment, UMIT-University for Health Sciences, Medical Informatics and Technology, Eduard-Wallnoefer-Zentrum 1, 6060 Hall in Tirol, Austria
| | - Nadine Steckling-Muschack
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational, Social, and Environmental Medicine, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Ziemssenstr. 5, 80336 Munich, Germany
- Department of Public Health, Health Services Research and Health Technology Assessment, UMIT-University for Health Sciences, Medical Informatics and Technology, Eduard-Wallnoefer-Zentrum 1, 6060 Hall in Tirol, Austria
- Klinikum Osnabrueck GmbH, Am Finkenhuegel 1, 49076 Osnabrueck, Germany
| | - Jana Becker
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational, Social, and Environmental Medicine, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Ziemssenstr. 5, 80336 Munich, Germany
- German Professional Association of Private Practitioners in Hematology and Medical Oncology, Sachsenring 57, 50677 Cologne, Germany
| | - Antony Mamuse
- Department of Geosciences, Midlands State University, Private Bag 9055, Senga Road, Gweru, Zimbabwe
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Landrigan P, Bose-O'Reilly S, Elbel J, Nordberg G, Lucchini R, Bartrem C, Grandjean P, Mergler D, Moyo D, Nemery B, von Braun M, Nowak D. Reducing disease and death from Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) - the urgent need for responsible mining in the context of growing global demand for minerals and metals for climate change mitigation. Environ Health 2022; 21:78. [PMID: 36028832 PMCID: PMC9412790 DOI: 10.1186/s12940-022-00877-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) takes place under extreme conditions with a lack of occupational health and safety. As the demand for metals is increasing due in part to their extensive use in 'green technologies' for climate change mitigation, the negative environmental and occupational consequences of mining practices are disproportionately felt in low- and middle-income countries. The Collegium Ramazzini statement on ASM presents updated information on its neglected health hazards that include multiple toxic hazards, most notably mercury, lead, cyanide, arsenic, cadmium, and cobalt, as well as physical hazards, most notably airborne dust and noise, and the high risk of infectious diseases. These hazards affect both miners and mining communities as working and living spaces are rarely separated. The impact on children and women is often severe, including hazardous exposures during the child-bearing age and pregnancies, and the risk of child labor. We suggest strategies for the mitigation of these hazards and classify those according to primordial, primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention. Further, we identify knowledge gaps and issue recommendations for international, national, and local governments, metal purchasers, and employers are given. With this statement, the Collegium Ramazzini calls for the extension of efforts to minimize all hazards that confront ASM miners and their families.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip Landrigan
- Program for Global Public Health and the Common Good, Global Observatory on Planetary Health, Boston College, Boston, USA.
- Centre Scientifique de Monaco, Monaco City, Monaco.
| | - Stephan Bose-O'Reilly
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Johanna Elbel
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Gunnar Nordberg
- Department of Public Health and Clinical Medicine, Umea University, Umea, Sweden
| | - Roberto Lucchini
- Institute of Occupational Health, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Casey Bartrem
- TerraGraphics International Foundation, Moscow, ID 83843, USA
| | - Philippe Grandjean
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Donna Mergler
- Centre de recherche interdisciplinaire sur le bien-être, la santé, la société et l'environnement (Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Health, Wellbeing, Society and Environment, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Dingani Moyo
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, Occupational Health Division, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, Republic of South Africa
- Department of Community Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health, National University of Science and Technology, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe
- Department of Community Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Midlands State University, Gweru, Zimbabwe
| | - Benoit Nemery
- Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Public Health and Primary Care, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Margrit von Braun
- TerraGraphics International Foundation, Moscow, ID 83843, USA
- Environmental Science Program, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83843, USA
| | - Dennis Nowak
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
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Mason RP, Coulibaly M, Hansen G, Inman H, Myer PK, Yao KM. An examination of mercury levels in the coastal environment and fish of Cote d'Ivoire. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 300:134609. [PMID: 35430197 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.134609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2022] [Revised: 04/04/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM), energy production and other industrial inputs are a major source of anthropogenic mercury (Hg) to the aquatic environment globally, and these inputs have led to environmental contamination and human exposure. While studies have documented the effects of Hg inputs to rivers and marine waters of the West African region, estuarine waters of Cote d'Ivoire have been understudied, besides the waters surrounding Abidjan. To fill this gap, and to examine the potential for human exposure to methylmercury (MeHg), we measured the concentrations of total Hg, MeHg, and ancillary parameters in water (dissolved and particulate phases), sediment and fish to determine the extent of environmental impact and the potential for MeHg exposure for people consuming these fish. Levels of Hg and MeHg in sediment were elevated in the vicinity of the urban environment (up to 0.3 ng/g dry weight (dw) MeHg and 623 ng/g dw total Hg) and lowest in the more remote estuarine environments. Measurements of Hg in tuna and other larger pelagic coastal species indicated that levels were elevated but comparable to other North Atlantic regions. However, levels of Hg in fish, even smaller estuarine species, were such that the rural and urban populations are potentially being exposed to unsafe levels of MeHg, primarily as a result of the relatively high fish consumption in Cote d'Ivoire compared to other countries. Overall, both local point sources and the transport of Hg used in interior ASGM activities are the sources for Hg contamination to these coastal waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- R P Mason
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Connecticut, Groton, CT, USA.
| | - M Coulibaly
- Ecole Normale Superieure (ENS), Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire
| | - G Hansen
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Connecticut, Groton, CT, USA
| | - H Inman
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Connecticut, Groton, CT, USA
| | - P K Myer
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Connecticut, Groton, CT, USA
| | - K M Yao
- Oceanographic Institute, Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire
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Singo J, Isunju JB, Moyo D, Bose-O’Reilly S, Steckling-Muschack N, Mamuse A. Accidents, Injuries, and Safety among Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Miners in Zimbabwe. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19148663. [PMID: 35886514 PMCID: PMC9324458 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19148663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Revised: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) employs 14–19 million people globally. There is limited research on accidents, injuries, and safety in Zimbabwe’s ASGM. This study investigates the prevalence of accidents and injuries, as well as the associated risks and existing safety practices. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among artisanal and small-scale gold miners. Data from 401 participants were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis. The prevalence of accidents and injuries was 35.0% and 25.7%. Accidents associated with experiencing injuries included mine collapses and underground trappings. The major injury risk factors were digging, blasting, being male, being 18–35 years old, crushing, and the underground transportation of workers and materials. Injuries were reported highest among the miners working 16 to 24 h per day. Participants had heard about personal protective equipment (PPE). There was training and routine inspections mainly on PPE use. Mine owners and supervisors were reported as responsible for OSH, which was mainly PPE use. Practices including the use of wire winch ropes and escape routes were rare. There was ignorance on underground mine shaft support. The mining regulations that had the potential to introduce comprehensive safety controls were not adaptable. We recommend applicable health and safety regulations for Zimbabwe’s ASGM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josephine Singo
- Centre for International Health, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Leopoldstrasse 5, D-80802 Munich, Germany
- Devsol Consulting, Clock Tower, Kampala P.O. Box 73201, Uganda
- Exceed Institute of Safety Management and Technology, Kampala P.O. Box 72212, Uganda
- Correspondence: or
| | - John Bosco Isunju
- Disease Control and Environmental Health Department, Makerere University School of Public Health, Kampala P.O. Box 7072, Uganda;
| | - Dingani Moyo
- School of Public Health, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, WITS, Johannesburg 2050, South Africa;
- Faculty of Medicine, National University of Science and Technology, Ascot, Bulawayo P.O. Box AC 939, Zimbabwe
- Faculty of Medicine, Midlands State University, Private Bag 9055, 263, Senga Road, Gweru P.O. Box 9055, Zimbabwe
| | - Stephan Bose-O’Reilly
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational, Social, and Environmental Medicine, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Ziemssenstr. 5, D-80336 Munich, Germany; (S.B.-O.); (N.S.-M.)
- Department of Public Health, Health Services Research and Health Technology Assessment, UMIT-University for Health Sciences, Medical Informatics and Technology, Eduard-Wallnoefer-Zentrum 1, A-6060 Hall in Tirol, Austria
| | - Nadine Steckling-Muschack
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational, Social, and Environmental Medicine, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Ziemssenstr. 5, D-80336 Munich, Germany; (S.B.-O.); (N.S.-M.)
- Department of Public Health, Health Services Research and Health Technology Assessment, UMIT-University for Health Sciences, Medical Informatics and Technology, Eduard-Wallnoefer-Zentrum 1, A-6060 Hall in Tirol, Austria
- Klinikum Osnabrueck GmbH, Am Finkenhuegel 1, D-49076 Osnabrueck, Germany
| | - Antony Mamuse
- Department of Geosciences, Midlands State University, Private Bag 9055, 263 Senga Road, Gweru P.O. Box 9055, Zimbabwe;
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Morante-Carballo F, Montalván-Burbano N, Aguilar-Aguilar M, Carrión-Mero P. A Bibliometric Analysis of the Scientific Research on Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19138156. [PMID: 35805816 PMCID: PMC9266635 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19138156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Revised: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Mineral resource exploitation is one of the activities that contribute to economic growth and the development of society. Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) is one of these activities. Unfortunately, there is no clear consensus to define ASM. However, its importance is relevant in that it represents, in some cases, the only employment alternative for millions of people, although it also significantly impacts the environment. This work aims to investigate the scientific information related to ASM through a bibliometric analysis and, in addition, to define the new lines that are tending to this field. The study comprises three phases of work: (i) data collection, (ii) data processing and software selection, and (iii) data interpretation. The results reflect that the study on ASM developed intensively from 2010 to the present. In general terms, the research addressed focuses on four interrelated lines: (i) social conditioning factors of ASM, (ii) environmental impacts generated by ASM, (iii) mercury contamination and its implication on health and the environment, and (iv) ASM as a livelihood. The work also defines that geotourism in artisanal mining areas is a significant trend of the last decade, explicitly focusing on the conservation and use of the geological and mining heritage and, in addition, the promotion of sustainable development of ASM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Morante-Carballo
- Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Matemáticas (FCNM), ESPOL Polytechnic University, Guayaquil 09015863, Ecuador
- Geo-Recursos y Aplicaciones (GIGA), ESPOL Polytechnic University, Guayaquil 09015863, Ecuador
- Correspondence: (F.M.-C.); (M.A.-A.)
| | - Néstor Montalván-Burbano
- Department of Economy and Business, University of Almería, Carr. Sacramento s/n, La Cañada de San Urbano, 04120 Almeria, Spain;
- Centro de Investigaciones y Proyectos Aplicados a las Ciencias de la Tierra (CIPAT), ESPOL Polytechnic University, Guayaquil 09015863, Ecuador;
| | - Maribel Aguilar-Aguilar
- Centro de Investigaciones y Proyectos Aplicados a las Ciencias de la Tierra (CIPAT), ESPOL Polytechnic University, Guayaquil 09015863, Ecuador;
- Correspondence: (F.M.-C.); (M.A.-A.)
| | - Paúl Carrión-Mero
- Centro de Investigaciones y Proyectos Aplicados a las Ciencias de la Tierra (CIPAT), ESPOL Polytechnic University, Guayaquil 09015863, Ecuador;
- Facultad de Ingeniería en Ciencias de la Tierra, Campus Gustavo Galindo, ESPOL Polytechnic University, Guayaquil 09015863, Ecuador
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Mercury Pollution from Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Myanmar and Other Southeast Asian Countries. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19106290. [PMID: 35627826 PMCID: PMC9142007 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19106290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 05/15/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Mercury (Hg) is one of the most harmful metals and has been a public health concern according to the World Health Organization (WHO). Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) is the world’s fastest-growing source of Hg and can release Hg into the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and geosphere. Hg has been widely used in ASGM industries throughout Southeast Asia countries, including Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, and Thailand. Here, 16 relevant studies were systematically searched by performing the PRISMA flow, combining the keywords of “Hg”, “ASGM”, and relevant study areas. Mercury concentrations exceeding the WHO and United States Environmental Protection Agency guideline values were reported in environmental (i.e., air, water, and soil) and biomonitoring samples (i.e., plants, fish, and human hair). ASGM-related health risks to miners and nonminers, specifically in Indonesia, the Philippines, and Myanmar, were also assessed. The findings indicated severe Hg contamination around the ASGM process, specifically the gold-amalgamation stage, was significantly high. To one point, Hg atmospheric concentrations from all observed studies was shown to be extremely high in the vicinity of gold operating areas. Attentions should be given regarding the public health concern, specifically for the vulnerable groups such as adults, pregnant women, and children who live near the ASGM activity. This review summarizes the effects of Hg in Myanmar and other Southeast Asian countries. In the future, more research and assessment will be required to investigate the current and evolving situation in ASGM communities.
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Abstract
Background: Objective: Methods: Findings: Conclusions:
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Climate Change, Conflict, and Resource Extraction: Analyses of Nigerian Artisanal Mining Communities and Ominous Global Trends. Ann Glob Health 2022; 88:17. [PMID: 35433284 PMCID: PMC8916050 DOI: 10.5334/aogh.3547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: The 2010 lead poisoning outbreak that claimed the lives of more than 400 children in artisanal gold mining villages in Zamfara, Nigeria is the tragic result of high gold prices, a geologic anomaly, and processing of ores in residential areas. Today, these villages face a growing crisis related to conflict and climate change. While the situation in Zamfara is unparalleled in many ways, the interactions between climate change, conflict, and mining consistently overlap a global scale. The scope of this analysis extends beyond the Nigerian crisis. Objectives: Understanding the complexities of challenges faced in Zamfara provides insight into how these issues impact vulnerable communities globally, and which strategies should be considered to solve this wicked problem. Methods: Analysis of the relationships between climate change, conflict, and mining in Zamfara and globally via literature review and examination of current events in the Sahel region. Findings: Supporting healthy artisanal mining communities, as was prioritized in Zamfara, must be a focus of environmental, health, and mineral management policies. This includes the consideration of multiple environmental health challenges, the protection of vulnerable groups, government-supported formalization programs, and meaningful involvement of local leadership in developing, implementing, and sustaining intervention strategies to enshrine ASM as a poverty reduction, climate change adaptation strategy. Conclusions: Rapidly rising metal prices and demand will continue to fuel environmental health crises associated with mining. Given Africa’s growing role in the global mineral economy and the massive number of subsistence communities who will continue to be impacted by climate change, strategies that support responsible artisanal mining are both a necessity for preventing future health crises and an opportunity for promoting regional stability and peace.
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Identification and Characterization of Peruvian Native Bacterial Strains as Bioremediation of Hg-Polluted Water and Soils Due to Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in the Secocha Annex, Arequipa. SUSTAINABILITY 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/su14052669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The water and soils pollution due to mercury emissions from mining industries represents a serious environmental problem and continuous risk to human health. Although many strategies have been designed for the recovery or elimination of this metal from environmental sources, microbial bioremediation has proven to be the most effective and environmentally friendly strategy and thus control heavy metal contamination. The main objective of this work, using native bacterial strains obtained from contaminated soils of the Peruvian region of Secocha, was to identify which of these strains would have growth capacity on mercury substrates to evaluate their adsorption behavior and mercury removal capacity. Through a DNA analysis (99.78% similarity) and atomic absorption spectrometry, the Gram-positive bacterium Zhihengliuella alba sp. T2.2 was identified as the strain with the highest mercury removal capacity from culture solutions with an initial mercury concentration of 162 mg·L−1. The removal capacity reached values close to 39.5% in a period of incubation time of 45 days, with maximum elimination efficiency in the first 48 h. These results are encouraging and show that this native strain may be the key to the bioremediation of water and soils contaminated with mercury.
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Taux K, Kraus T, Kaifie A. Mercury Exposure and Its Health Effects in Workers in the Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) Sector—A Systematic Review. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19042081. [PMID: 35206270 PMCID: PMC8871667 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19042081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Revised: 02/08/2022] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Gold is one of the most valuable materials but is frequently extracted under circumstances that are hazardous to artisanal and small-scale gold miners’ health. A common gold extraction method uses liquid mercury, leading to a high exposure in workers. Therefore, a systematic review according to the PRISMA criteria was conducted in order to examine the health effects of occupational mercury exposure. Researching the databases PubMed®, EMBASE® and Web of ScienceTM yielded in a total of 10,589 results, which were screened by two independent reviewers. We included 19 studies in this review. According to the quantitative assessment, occupational mercury exposure may cause a great variety of signs and symptoms, in particular in the field of neuro-psychological disorders, such as ataxia, tremor or memory problems. However, many reported symptoms were largely unspecific, such as hair loss or pain. Most of the included studies had a low methodological quality with an overall high risk of bias rating. The results demonstrate that occupational mercury exposure seriously affects miners’ health and well-being.
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21
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Wireko-Gyebi RS, Arhin A, Braimah I, King R, Lykke AM. Working in a risky environment: Coping and Risk Handling Strategies among Small-scale Miners in Ghana. Saf Health Work 2022; 13:163-169. [PMID: 35664911 PMCID: PMC9142356 DOI: 10.1016/j.shaw.2022.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Revised: 02/20/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background It is estimated that about 13 million artisanal and small-scale miners carry out their activities under harsh, precarious, unfriendly, and risky conditions. Yet, our understanding of the extent to which these workers use personal protective equipment (PPE) and navigate through the various risks and hazards they face is still limited. This article has two main objectives. First, it explores the extent of usage of PPE among artisanal and small-scale miners for the prevention of hazards and risks. Second, it examines the coping strategies used by these miners as a response to experiences of occupational injuries and risks Methods A cross-sectional survey of small-scale miners was conducted in six communities across three districts in Ghana, West Africa. The mixed methods approach was adopted. A total of 148 small-scale miners participated in the study. Six focus group discussions (FGDs) were held across the six communities. The data were analysed using descriptive statistics. Chi-square tests were used to analyse the relationship between some socio-demographic characteristics (sex, age, and educational background) and the usage of PPE. Open-ended questions and responses from FGDs were analysed based on the content and verbatim quotations from miners. Results Findings suggest that 78% of the miners interviewed do not use the appropriate PPE citing reasons such as cost, and their personal discomfort associated with use of PPE. There was no significant relationship between socio-demographic characteristics (i.e., sex, age, education and major mining activity) and the usage of PPE. The study further revealed four main coping strategies used by miners to handle the risks. These are rest, taking unprescribed medication and hard drugs, registration with health insurance scheme and savings and investments. Conclusion This study shows that very few artisanal miners use PPE despite the significant hazards and risks to which they are exposed. The study recommends to the government to put in place measures to ensure that miners adhere to health and safety regulations before undertaking mining activities. This means that health and safety plans and use of PPE should be linked to the license acquisition process for miners.
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González-Valoys AC, Arrocha J, Monteza-Destro T, Vargas-Lombardo M, Esbrí JM, Garcia-Ordiales E, Jiménez-Ballesta R, García-Navarro FJ, Higueras P. Environmental challenges related to cyanidation in Central American gold mining; the Remance mine (Panama). JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2022; 302:113979. [PMID: 34715613 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.113979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2021] [Revised: 09/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/17/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Mine tailings are a potential source of environmental pollution because they typically contain potentially toxic elements (PTEs) and the residue of chemical compounds used during extraction processes. The Remance gold mine (NW Panama) is a decommissioned mine with mining activity records dating from the 1800s and several periods of abandonment. Very little remediation work has been performed, and waste is exposed to climatic conditions. This study aimed to evaluate the PTEs and cyanide contents in mine waste after mining operations ceased some 20 years ago, and to evaluate the degree of pollution and the environmental risks they pose with the use of the Pollution Load Index (PLI) and the Ecological Risk Index (RI). Although the total cyanide (T-CN) concentration (1.4-1.9 mg kg-1) found in most of the study area falls within the limits of gold mining tailing values for American sites (1.5-23 mg kg-1), it is worth noting that the values of the tailings of the last used mining operation exceed it (25.2-518 mg kg-1) and persist at the site. The PLI and RI suggest that the tailings from the mine and mine gallery sediments represent a source of pollution for soils and surrounding areas given their high content of PTEs (As, Cu, Sb, Hg) and T-CN, which pose serious ecological risks for biota. Therefore, it is necessary to draw up a remediation plan for this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Cristina González-Valoys
- Centro Experimental de Ingeniería, Technological University of Panama, Vía Tocumen, 0819-07289, Panama City, Panama; Instituto de Geología Aplicada, Castilla-La Mancha University, EIMI Almadén, Plaza Manuel Meca 1, Almadén, 13400, Ciudad Real, Spain; Department of Geology & Geochemistry, Autonomous University of Madrid, University City of Cantoblanco, 28049, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Jonatha Arrocha
- Centro Experimental de Ingeniería, Technological University of Panama, Vía Tocumen, 0819-07289, Panama City, Panama
| | - Tisla Monteza-Destro
- Departamento de Geotecnia, Facultad de Ingeniería Civil, Technological University of Panama, Ricardo J. Alfaro Avenue, Dr. Víctor Levi Sasso University Campus, 0819-07289, Panama City, Panama
| | - Miguel Vargas-Lombardo
- Facultad de Ingeniería de Sistemas Computacionales, Technological University of Panama, Ricardo J. Alfaro Avenue, Dr. Víctor Levi Sasso University Campus, 0819-07289, Panamá City, Panama; SNI-SENACYT Sistema Nacional de Investigación-Secretaria Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación, Clayton, Ciudad del Saber Edif.205, 0816-02852, Panama City, Panama
| | - José María Esbrí
- Instituto de Geología Aplicada, Castilla-La Mancha University, EIMI Almadén, Plaza Manuel Meca 1, Almadén, 13400, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Efrén Garcia-Ordiales
- Mining Exploration and Prospecting Department, University of Oviedo, Independencia Street, 13, 33004, Oviedo, Spain
| | - Raimundo Jiménez-Ballesta
- Department of Geology & Geochemistry, Autonomous University of Madrid, University City of Cantoblanco, 28049, Madrid, Spain
| | - Francisco Jesús García-Navarro
- Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos de Ciudad Real, Castilla-La Mancha University, Ronda de Calatrava no 7, 13071, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Pablo Higueras
- Instituto de Geología Aplicada, Castilla-La Mancha University, EIMI Almadén, Plaza Manuel Meca 1, Almadén, 13400, Ciudad Real, Spain
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Rakete S, Moonga G, Wahl AM, Mambrey V, Shoko D, Moyo D, Muteti-Fana S, Tobollik M, Steckling-Muschack N, Bose-O'Reilly S. Biomonitoring of arsenic, cadmium and lead in two artisanal and small-scale gold mining areas in Zimbabwe. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:4762-4768. [PMID: 34409536 PMCID: PMC8741681 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-15940-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
People living and working in artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) areas are frequently exposed to elemental mercury (Hg), which is used for gold extraction. However, additional exposure to other toxic metals such as arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) may result from mining-related activities and could be ingested via dust, water or food. In these areas, only limited biomonitoring data is available for toxic metals other than Hg. In particular, data about the exposure to As, Cd and Pb is unavailable for the Zimbabwean population. Therefore, we conducted a cross-sectional study in two ASGM areas in Zimbabwe to evaluate the internal exposure to these metals. In total, urine and blood samples from 207 people that identified themselves as miners were collected and analysed for As and Cd in urine as well as Pb in blood by GF-AAS. Median levels (interquartile ranges in μg/l) of As and Pb were 9.7 μg/l (4.0, 18.5) and 19.7 μg/l (12.5, 34.5), respectively. The 25th percentile and the median for Cd were below the limit of detection (0.5 μg/l); the 75th percentile was at 0.9 μg/l. The results were compared to reference values found for the general population in the USA and Germany, and a significant number of participants exceeded these values (As, 33 %; Cd, 27 %; Pb, 32 %), indicating a relevant exposure to toxic metals. Although not representative for the Zimbabwean population, our results demonstrate that the exposure to toxic metals is relevant for the public health in Zimbabwe and requires further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Rakete
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational-, Social- and Environmental Medicine, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Ziemssenstr. 1, D-80336, Munich, Germany.
| | - Given Moonga
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational-, Social- and Environmental Medicine, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Ziemssenstr. 1, D-80336, Munich, Germany
- Center for International Health, LMU University Hospital Munich, Munich, Germany
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Anna-Maria Wahl
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational-, Social- and Environmental Medicine, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Ziemssenstr. 1, D-80336, Munich, Germany
| | - Viola Mambrey
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational-, Social- and Environmental Medicine, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Ziemssenstr. 1, D-80336, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Dingani Moyo
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, Occupational Health Division, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, Republic of South Africa
- Faculty of Medicine & Faculty of Social Sciences, Midlands State University, Gweru, Zimbabwe
| | - Shamiso Muteti-Fana
- Department of Community Medicine, UZ College of Health Sciences, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Myriam Tobollik
- Section Environmental Medicine and Health Effects Assessment German Environment Agency, Berlin, Germany
| | - Nadine Steckling-Muschack
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational-, Social- and Environmental Medicine, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Ziemssenstr. 1, D-80336, Munich, Germany
| | - Stephan Bose-O'Reilly
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational-, Social- and Environmental Medicine, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Ziemssenstr. 1, D-80336, Munich, Germany
- Institute of Public Health, Medical Decision Making and Health Technology Assessment, Department of Public Health, Health Services Research and Health Technology Assessment, UMIT (Private University for Health Sciences, Medical Informatics and Technology), Hall in Tirol, Austria
- University Children's Hospital Regensburg (KUNO-Clinics), Clinic St. Hedwig, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
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Heemskerk M, Le Tourneau FM, Hiwat H, Cairo H, Pratley P. In a life full of risks, COVID-19 makes little difference. Responses to COVID-19 among mobile migrants in gold mining areas in Suriname and French Guiana. Soc Sci Med 2022; 296:114747. [PMID: 35123372 PMCID: PMC8799373 DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.114747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2021] [Revised: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Worldwide, the socioeconomic impacts of COVID-19 disproportionally affect vulnerable groups in society. This paper assesses responses to, and impacts of, the pandemic among mobile migrant populations who work in Artisanal and Small-scale Gold Mining (ASGM) in Suriname and French Guiana. These populations are characterized by poverty, informal or illegal status, and limited access to health care and information. Field research in Suriname (November 2020–January 2021) and French Guiana (January, May, June 2021) included qualitative interviews, informal conversations and observations, and a quantitative survey with 361 men and women in ASGM communities. Contrary to reports from the ASGM sector elsewhere, interviewed inhabitants of ASGM areas in Suriname and French Guiana showed little concern about COVID-19. Respondents reported feeling safer in the forest where they work than in the urban areas or in their home country. Trust in home remedies and over-the-counter pharmaceuticals further reduced anxiety about the pandemic. Three-quarters of survey respondents reported that the COVID-19 pandemic had not affected their work or income at all. The researchers conclude that in these remote Amazon communities, responses to COVID-19 mirror attitudes and behavior vis-à-vis malaria and other health risks: self-medicate, ignore, and pray. Living on the margins of society mitigates the socioeconomic impacts of COVID-19, as containment measures are not applied to these socially invisible populations. Whereas the urban poor are severely hit by the pandemic, this hidden population benefits from high gold prices, an outdoors lifestyle, and traditional resourcefulness in dealing with a life full of risks.
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Komatsu S, Pongoliu YID, Sakakibara M, Ohdoko T. Examining Preference Heterogeneity in Best-Worst Scaling: Case of Preferences for Job Opportunities in Artisanal Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) Communities in Indonesia. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 19:306. [PMID: 35010565 PMCID: PMC8744916 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19010306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2021] [Revised: 12/23/2021] [Accepted: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
This research empirically examines the preferences for job-related attributes among rural villagers living close to artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) in Indonesia. Based on hypothetical scenarios in which a private company collaborates with the local government to establish a food processing industry in these villages, a questionnaire survey designed with best-worst scaling (BWS) was administered to households to determine their preferences. Additionally, the heterogeneity among the villagers was examined by applying a latent class logit (LCL) model. The main household survey was conducted in 2019 in Bone Bolango Regency, Gorontalo Province. The estimation results revealed that villagers are separated into four classes, and each class has different and unique preferences. Creating more job opportunities for society is a highly evaluated attribute; however, the preference for skill acquisition differs among groups. The results indicate that accounting for heterogeneous preferences regarding job opportunities is helpful to delink dependency on ASGM and health hazards and improve the livelihoods of rural villagers. The study yields key information to substantially reduce environmental and health hazards in the poverty-plagued ASGM community by facilitating job opportunities in Indonesia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoru Komatsu
- Graduate School of Global Humanities and Social Sciences, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki 852-8521, Japan
| | | | - Masayuki Sakakibara
- Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Kyoto 603-8047, Japan;
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Ehime University, Matsuyama 790-8577, Japan
| | - Taro Ohdoko
- Faculty of Economics, Dokkyo University, Saitama 340-0042, Japan;
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Cuya A, Glikman JA, Groenendijk J, Macdonald DW, Swaisgood RR, Barocas A. Socio-environmental perceptions and barriers to conservation engagement among artisanal small-scale gold mining communities in Southeastern Peru. Glob Ecol Conserv 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gecco.2021.e01816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
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Zhao G, Li X, Zhu J, Zhao X, Zhang J, Zhai J. Pollution Assessment of Potentially Toxic Elements (PTEs) in Soils around the Yanzhuang Gold Mine Tailings Pond, Pinggu County, Beijing, China. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18147240. [PMID: 34299689 PMCID: PMC8308061 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18147240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Revised: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 07/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The accumulation of tailings from gold mining and smelting may result in PTE pollution. We investigated PTE contamination from a large amalgamated gold mine tailings pond in Pinggu County, Beijing. In November 2017, 30 soil samples were collected around the tailings pond. The concentrations and pollution degree of PTEs in the samples and the sources of Sb, As, Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn and Hg were analyzed. The average concentration of these elements in soil samples near the tailings pond (16.24, 28.29, 0.99, 171.04, 263.25, 99.73, 0.72 mg/kg, respectively) were higher than their corresponding standard values and background values of the study area. The geoaccumulation index showed that the pollution degree of As, Pb and Hg was moderate, while Sb and Cu present non-pollution to moderate pollution. The average EF values of the elements were Sb (38.31), As (4.23), Cd (0.71), Cu (3.68), Pb (21.24), Zn (0.82) and Hg (5.29), respectively. The environmental risk assessment developed throughout the PERI method indicated that Sb, As, Hg and Pb were the main pollutants in the study area. The three quantitative risk indicators (RI, Igeo and EF) were positively correlated, and all of them indicated that PTEs had significant pollution to the local area. Thus, Sb, As, Pb, Cu, and Hg pollution should be highly concerning. Multivariate statistical analysis shows that the pollution of PTEs was mainly caused by the accumulation of tailings ponds after gold mining and smelting. The research result is of great significance for the prevention and control of soil pollution of PTEs near the tailings pond.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangjie Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Coal Resources and Safe Mining, China University of Mining and Technology, Beijing 100083, China; (G.Z.); (J.Z.)
- College of Geoscience Grad Surveying Engineering, China University of Technology, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Xianqing Li
- State Key Laboratory of Coal Resources and Safe Mining, China University of Mining and Technology, Beijing 100083, China; (G.Z.); (J.Z.)
- College of Geoscience Grad Surveying Engineering, China University of Technology, Beijing 100083, China
- Correspondence: (X.L.); (J.Z.)
| | - Jiewang Zhu
- School of Civil Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan 250101, China
- Correspondence: (X.L.); (J.Z.)
| | - Xueyan Zhao
- Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China;
| | - Jizhen Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Exploration Technologies for Oil and Gas Resources, Yangtze University, Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430100, China;
- College of Resources and Environment, Yangtze University, Wuhan 430100, China
| | - Jia Zhai
- State Key Laboratory of Coal Resources and Safe Mining, China University of Mining and Technology, Beijing 100083, China; (G.Z.); (J.Z.)
- College of Geoscience Grad Surveying Engineering, China University of Technology, Beijing 100083, China
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Becker J, Furu P, Singo J, Shoko D, Elbel J, Bose-O'Reilly S, Steckling-Muschack N. Determinants of health and health needs assessment of artisanal and small-scale gold miners in Kadoma, Zimbabwe: A mixed method approach. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2021; 197:111081. [PMID: 33775681 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.111081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 03/20/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The role of artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) as a source of income is rapidly gaining importance in the economically difficult times in Zimbabwe. Small-scale miners are now responsible for over 50% of the Zimbabwean gold production. However, the sector is still characterised by high labour-intensity, low productivity and capital, limited mechanisation and outdated technologies. Since increasing efforts in recent years to improve miners' health while reducing the exposure to mercury have not been effective, a more sustainable approach is needed to identify interventions targeting the health of artisanal and small-scale miners and the mining communities. OBJECTIVE The main objective of this study was the accurate and extensive empirical identification of the determinants of health in ASGM and of the miners' health needs. In tandem with these needs, topics which generate more effective, sustainable, and feasible future health interventions targeting occupational health should be identified. METHODS Based on the identification of determinants of health, a health needs assessment (HNA) was used to conduct miners' needs by applying a mixed methods approach and triangulation. This included qualitative and quantitative interviews with individuals, group interviews, focus group discussions, observations and informal conversations. RESULTS There were 85 structured and 84 semi-structured interviews, a focus group discussion, and observations conducted. Six main themes were identified around which miners' health needs can be aggregated as follows: living conditions, nutrition and hygiene; safe work environment and mining processes; financial support; health care services; formalisation and education. DISCUSSION The following aspects were considered most important for sustainable interventions: possible health impacts, feasibility, value for miners and their willingness to adapt. Accordingly, interventions aiming at increasing education, knowledge and awareness of miners were identified as most promising in improving occupational health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana Becker
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, LMU University Hospital, Munich, Germany
| | - Peter Furu
- University of Copenhagen, Department of Public Health, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Josephine Singo
- National University of Science and Technology, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe
| | | | - Johanna Elbel
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, LMU University Hospital, Munich, Germany; Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Stephan Bose-O'Reilly
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, LMU University Hospital, Munich, Germany; Department of Public Health, Health Services Research and Health Technology Assessment, UMIT - Private University for Health Sciences, Medical Informatics and Technology, Hall I. T., Austria.
| | - Nadine Steckling-Muschack
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, LMU University Hospital, Munich, Germany; Department of Public Health, Health Services Research and Health Technology Assessment, UMIT - Private University for Health Sciences, Medical Informatics and Technology, Hall I. T., Austria
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29
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Wickliffe JK, Lichtveld MY, Zijlmans CW, MacDonald-Ottevanger S, Shafer M, Dahman C, Harville EW, Drury S, Landburg G, Ouboter P. Exposure to total and methylmercury among pregnant women in Suriname: sources and public health implications. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2021; 31:117-125. [PMID: 32461550 PMCID: PMC7704553 DOI: 10.1038/s41370-020-0233-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2019] [Revised: 04/17/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Previous research has found that women and children living in rural, interior communities in Suriname have high concentrations of mercury in hair. Freshwater fish from these areas also have high concentrations of mercury. Artisanal and small-scale gold mining operations in parts of the country use elemental mercury to extract gold from soils and sediments. Total mercury and methylmercury concentrations have been determined in hair and blood from pregnant women across the country. Pregnant women from interior communities have significantly higher concentrations of both total and methylmercury in hair (median total mercury in hair 3.64 µg/g) compared with pregnant women from two urban coastal cities, Paramaribo (0.63 µg/g) and Nickerie (0.74 µg/g). Total and methylmercury concentrations in blood and hair are highly correlated (r = 0.986, r = 0.974) with methylmercury making up 86% of the total in blood and 97% of the total in hair. Most women in the interior regions rely heavily on local fish as part of their regular diet, and many live outsides of areas with active ASGM operations. This study demonstrates that diet and fish consumption largely govern mercury exposures in pregnant women in Suriname.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey K Wickliffe
- Department of Global Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA.
| | - Maureen Y Lichtveld
- Department of Global Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA
| | - C Wilco Zijlmans
- Academic Hospital Paramaribo, Scientific Research Center Suriname, Paramaribo, Suriname
- Faculty of Medical Sciences, Anton de Kom University of Suriname, Paramaribo, Suriname
| | | | - Martin Shafer
- Wisconsin State Laboratory of Hygiene, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53718, USA
| | - Christa Dahman
- Wisconsin State Laboratory of Hygiene, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53718, USA
| | - Emily W Harville
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA
| | - Stacy Drury
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA
| | - Gwendolyn Landburg
- National Zoological Collection of Suriname/Environmental Research Center (NZCS/CMO), Anton de Kom University of Suriname, Paramaribo, Suriname
| | - Paul Ouboter
- National Zoological Collection of Suriname/Environmental Research Center (NZCS/CMO), Anton de Kom University of Suriname, Paramaribo, Suriname
- Institute for Neotropical Wildlife and Environmental Studies (NeoWild), Paramaribo, Suriname
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30
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Marshall BG, Veiga MM, da Silva HAM, Guimarães JRD. Cyanide Contamination of the Puyango-Tumbes River Caused by Artisanal Gold Mining in Portovelo-Zaruma, Ecuador. Curr Environ Health Rep 2021; 7:303-310. [PMID: 32506189 DOI: 10.1007/s40572-020-00276-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW To examine cyanide (CN-) contamination of a large river in southeastern Ecuador that has been severely impacted by the indiscriminate discharge of untreated gold processing effluents. RECENT FINDINGS Poor environmental stewardship of cyanide (CN-) use by 87 gold processing centers in Portovelo-Zaruma in southern Ecuador to leach residual gold from Hg-contaminated tailings has resulted in high CN- contamination of the Puyango-Tumbes River downstream from the centers. Free CN- concentrations were high in river surface waters for 50 km below the processing plants, with the highest concentration 9088 times above the CCME standard of 5 μg/L and 1136 times above the 24-h LC50 concentration of 40 μg/L free CN- for some fish species. Due to cyanidation of mercury-contaminated tailings, the formation of Hg-CN complexes is a grave concern, as these complexes have been shown to be highly bioavailable. Preliminary tests conducted in a laboratory using bioassays with Danio rerio sp. and varying concentrations of synthetic Hg(CN)2 salt have shown significant THg bioaccumulation in muscle and kidney fish tissues exposed to concentrations >0.12 mg/L. Furthermore, low MeHg results in fish tissues demonstrated little occurrence of methylation and that the bulk of the total mercury content was in the form of inorganic mercury. Although construction of a communal tailings facility (CTF) in Portovelo is a positive development to reduce riverine pollution, the requirement to truck tailings up to the CTF likely results in inadequate compliance of environmental regulations that are poorly enforced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce G Marshall
- Norman B. Keevil Institute of Mining Engineering, University of British Columbia, 517-6350 Stores Road, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada.
| | - Marcello M Veiga
- Norman B. Keevil Institute of Mining Engineering, University of British Columbia, 517-6350 Stores Road, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Henrique A M da Silva
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Jean Remy Davée Guimarães
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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Schwartz FW, Lee S, Darrah TH. A Review of the Scope of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Worldwide, Poverty, and the Associated Health Impacts. GEOHEALTH 2021; 5:e2020GH000325. [PMID: 33763625 PMCID: PMC7977029 DOI: 10.1029/2020gh000325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2020] [Revised: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/20/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Some of the poorest people in the world's poorest countries eke out a living in artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM). Equipped with primitive tools like picks, shovels, buckets, and gold pans, they work mining valuable resources, like gold, diamonds, tin, lithium, rare earth elements, tantalum, and cobalt, and any other usable commodity, for example, sand, coal, or mica. The mining and refining processes are labor intensive and associated with a variety of health problems due to accidents, overheating, overexertion, dust inhalation, exposure to toxic chemicals and gases, violence, and illicit and prescription drug and alcohol addiction. Evident disadvantages with ASM are counterbalanced by the immense economic benefits. For many, the true scope and scale of ASM activities are unappreciated, along with the unknown health and societal impacts. Here, we set out to elucidate the scope of ASM beyond the recovery of familiar commodities, such as gold and diamonds. We adopt a holistic perspective toward health impacts of ASM, which includes unique occupational, environmental, and human/social drivers. A particular focus is poverty as a health risk with artisanal miners. They are commonly poverty-stricken people in poor countries, ensnared by a variety of poverty traps, which take a toll on the health and well-being of individuals and communities. ASM sometimes provides an opportunity to diversify income in the face of a decline in subsistence agriculture. However, ASM often trades one kind of generational poverty for another, coming along with serious health risks and turmoil associated with work in an informal "cash-rich" business.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franklin W. Schwartz
- School of Earth SciencesThe Ohio State UniversityColumbusOHUSA
- Global Water InstituteThe Ohio State UniversityColumbusOHUSA
| | - Sangsuk Lee
- School of Earth SciencesThe Ohio State UniversityColumbusOHUSA
- Global Water InstituteThe Ohio State UniversityColumbusOHUSA
| | - Thomas H. Darrah
- School of Earth SciencesThe Ohio State UniversityColumbusOHUSA
- Global Water InstituteThe Ohio State UniversityColumbusOHUSA
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Abstract
Primary artisanal mercury (Hg) mining in Mexico continues to proliferate unabated, while official Hg exports have declined in recent years amid speculation of a rising black market trade. In this paper, an assessment of primary Hg mining in Mexico was conducted, with a focus on four sites in Querétaro State. Atmospheric Hg concentrations were measured at two of those sites. In addition, trade data was examined, including Hg exports from Mexico and imports by countries that have a large artisanal gold mining (AGM) sector. Results showed that while annual Hg production in Mexico has ramped up in recent years, official Hg exports reduced from 307 tonnes in 2015 to 63 tonnes in 2019. Since 2010, mercury exports to Colombia, Peru and Bolivia have represented 77% of Mexico’s total Hg trade. As the large majority of Hg trade with these countries is apparently destined for the AGM sector, which is contrary to Article 3 of the Minamata Convention, there is evidence that increased international scrutiny has led to an increase in unregulated international transfers. Atmospheric Hg concentrations at the mines show dangerously high levels, raising concern over the risk of significant health impacts to miners and other community members.
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Amirhosseini M, Alkaissi H, Hultman PA, Havarinasab S. Autoantibodies in outbred Swiss Webster mice following exposure to gold and mercury. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2020; 412:115379. [PMID: 33358697 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2020.115379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Revised: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Exposure to heavy metals may have toxic effects on several human organs causing morbidity and mortality. Metals may trigger or exacerbate autoimmunity in humans. Inbred mouse strains with certain H-2 haplotypes are susceptible to xenobiotic-induced autoimmunity; and their immune response to metals such as mercury, gold, and silver have been explored. Serum antinuclear antibodies (ANA), polyclonal B-cell activation, hypergammaglobulinemia and tissue immune complex deposition are the main features of metal-induced autoimmunity in inbred mice. However, inbred mouse strains do not represent the genetic heterogeneity in humans. In this study, outbred Swiss Webster (SW) mice exposed to gold or mercury salts showed immune and autoimmune responses. Intramuscular injection of 22.5 mg/kg.bw aurothiomalate (AuTM) induced IgG ANA in SW mice starting after 5 weeks that persisted until week 15 although with a lower intensity. This was accompanied by elevated serum levels of total IgG antibodies against chromatin and total histones. Exposure to gold led to development of serum IgG autoantibodies corresponding to H1 and H2A histones, and dsDNA. Both gold and mercury induced polyclonal B-cell activation. Eight mg/L mercuric chloride (HgCl2) in drinking water, caused IgG antinucleolar antibodies (ANoA) after 5 weeks in SW mice accompanied by immune complex deposition in kidneys and spleen. Serum IgG antibodies corresponding to anti-fibrillarin, and anti-PM/Scl-100 antibodies, were observed in mercury-exposed SW mice. Gold and mercury trigger systemic autoimmune response in genetically heterogeneous outbred SW mice and suggest them as an appropriate model to study xenobiotic-induced autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehdi Amirhosseini
- Division of Inflammation and Infection, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Hammoudi Alkaissi
- Division of Inflammation and Infection, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Per A Hultman
- Division of Inflammation and Infection, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden; Department of Clinical Pathology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Said Havarinasab
- Division of Clinical Chemistry, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden.
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Abstract
Worldwide there are over 43 million artisanal miners in virtually all developing countries extracting at least 30 different minerals. Gold, due to its increasing value, is the main mineral extracted by at least half of these miners. The large majority use amalgamation either as the final process to extract gold from gravity concentrates or from the whole ore. This latter method has been causing large losses of mercury to the environment and the most relevant world’s mercury pollution. For years, international agencies and researchers have been promoting gravity concentration methods as a way to eventually avoid the use of mercury or to reduce the mass of material to be amalgamated. This article reviews typical gravity concentration methods used by artisanal miners in developing countries, based on numerous field trips of the authors to more than 35 countries where artisanal gold mining is common.
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Participatory Analysis of Small-Scale Artisanal Gold Mining in the Santa Rita District, Municipality of Andes, Antioquia, Based on the PAIIO Methodology. SYSTEMIC PRACTICE AND ACTION RESEARCH 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11213-020-09551-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Seney CS, Bridges CC, Aljic S, Moore ME, Orr SE, Barnes MC, Joshee L, Uchakina ON, Bellott BJ, McKallip RJ, Drace K, Veiga MM, Kiefer AM. Reaction of Cyanide with Hg0-Contaminated Gold Mining Tailings Produces Soluble Mercuric Cyanide Complexes. Chem Res Toxicol 2020; 33:2834-2844. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.0c00211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Caryn S. Seney
- Department of Chemistry, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia 31207, United States
| | - Christy C. Bridges
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Mercer University School of Medicine, Macon, Georgia 31207, United States
| | - Sumeja Aljic
- Department of Chemistry, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia 31207, United States
| | - Matthew E. Moore
- Department of Chemistry, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia 31207, United States
| | - Sarah E. Orr
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Mercer University School of Medicine, Macon, Georgia 31207, United States
| | - Mary C. Barnes
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Mercer University School of Medicine, Macon, Georgia 31207, United States
| | - Lucy Joshee
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Mercer University School of Medicine, Macon, Georgia 31207, United States
| | - Olga N. Uchakina
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Mercer University School of Medicine, Macon, Georgia 31207, United States
| | - Brian J. Bellott
- Department of Chemistry, Western Illinois University, Macomb, Illinois 61455, United States
| | - Robert J. McKallip
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Mercer University School of Medicine, Macon, Georgia 31207, United States
| | - Kevin Drace
- Department of Biology, Birmingham Southern College, Birmingham, Alabama 35254, United States
| | - Marcello M. Veiga
- Norman B. Keevil Institute of Mining Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Adam M. Kiefer
- Department of Chemistry, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia 31207, United States
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Lamboj A, Lucanus O, Osei Darko P, Arroyo‐Mora JP, Kalacska M. Habitat loss in the restricted range of the endemic Ghanaian cichlid
Limbochromis robertsi. Biotropica 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/btp.12806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anton Lamboj
- Department of Evolutionary Biology University of Vienna Vienna Austria
| | - Oliver Lucanus
- Applied Remote Sensing Laboratory Department of Geography McGill University Montreal QC Canada
| | - Patrick Osei Darko
- Applied Remote Sensing Laboratory Department of Geography McGill University Montreal QC Canada
| | | | - Margaret Kalacska
- Applied Remote Sensing Laboratory Department of Geography McGill University Montreal QC Canada
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Health-related quality of life (EQ-5D + C) among people living in artisanal and small-scale gold mining areas in Zimbabwe: a cross-sectional study. Health Qual Life Outcomes 2020; 18:284. [PMID: 32811504 PMCID: PMC7437047 DOI: 10.1186/s12955-020-01530-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2019] [Accepted: 08/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In Zimbabwe, an estimated 500,000 people work in the sector of artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM). Two million Zimbabweans are dependent on this sector. Using mercury is common to extract gold from ore. Long term exposure to mercury can cause various adverse health conditions including chronic mercury intoxication. The influence of these adverse health effects on the health-related quality of life (HRQoL) is still unknown. The aim of this study is to assess the HRQoL of people who identify themselves as miners, and to analyze potential influencing factors, such as age, years of working with mercury and health conditions caused by mercury exposure. Methods This cross-sectional study assessed the HRQoL using the standardized EQ-5D + C (3 L) questionnaire and collected human specimens (blood, urine) of people living and possibly working in ASGM areas in Zimbabwe. Factors such as age, years of working with mercury and adverse health conditions possibly caused by mercury exposure were analyzed with regards to their influence on the HRQoL. Results The 207 participants (82% male, mean age 38 years) reported 40 different health states. Of the study participants 42.5% reported to be in complete good health while 57.5% reported being unwell in different ways. Nine participants (4.3%) were identified with chronic mercury intoxication, whereas 92 participants (33.3%) had mercury levels above the “Alert” threshold in at least one specimen. Having chronic mercury intoxication has a significant negative influence on the HRQoL, when taking into account age, gender and years of working with mercury. Cognitive problems were the most reported in the questionnaire, however, the association between this domain separately and the HRQoL was not verified. Conclusion This study shows that adverse health effects caused by chronic exposure to mercury, have a negative influence on the HRQoL among people living in ASGM areas.
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Becker J, Bose-O'Reilly S, Shoko D, Singo J, Steckling-Muschack N. Comparing the self-reported health-related quality of life (HRQoL) of artisanal and small-scale gold miners and the urban population in Zimbabwe using the EuroQol (EQ-5D-3L+C) questionnaire: a cross-sectional study. Health Qual Life Outcomes 2020; 18:253. [PMID: 32727498 PMCID: PMC7390189 DOI: 10.1186/s12955-020-01475-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2018] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The role of artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) as a source of income is rapidly gaining importance in the economically difficult times in Zimbabwe. Besides limited epidemiological data, no data about the self-reported health-related quality of life (HRQoL) of artisanal and small-scale gold miners exist. The aim of the project was to access HRQoL of ASGM workers to improve the data base and compare the data to the urban Zimbabwean population. Methods Data from 83 artisanal and small-scale gold miners in Kadoma, Zimbabwe was analysed. The HRQoL was assessed using the EuroQol dimensions (mobility, self-care, usual activities, pain/discomfort, anxiety/depression) accompanied by the cognition add-on questionnaire (EQ-5D-3L+C) and associated visual analogue scale (VAS). We described the EQ-5D dimensions and VAS values and computed health utility (HU) values using the Zimbabwean tariff. The proportions of miners reporting no problem in each EQ-5D dimension were compared with corresponding proportions reporting any problem (moderate or severe), and mean HU and VAS values were analysed across subgroups of the sample. To test differences between subgroups, Fisher’s exact test was used and between urban and mining population, Student’s t-test was used. Results The reported health states of miners were homogenous, with a large amount (42%) reporting ‘full health’. Mean (SD) VAS and HU values were 81.0 (17.5) and 0.896 (0.13), respectively. Subgroup analysis showed that miners with a lower education reported significantly more problems in the dimension of daily activities and miners with mercury contact had more problems in the dimensions of pain/discomfort and cognition. Comparison between mining and urban population showed that in the oldest age group, self-rated VAS values of miners were significantly higher than of their urban counterparts. Conclusions There were no significant differences in the HRQoL of mining and urban populations. However, the reason might be adverse health effects faced by the urban population that do not apply to rural mining areas. A higher education level of miners can improve the HRQoL, which is especially impaired by problems in the cognition dimension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana Becker
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, University Hospital, LMU Munich, 80336, Munich, Germany. .,Institute for Medical Information Sciences, Biometrics, and Epidemiology - IBE, LMU Munich, 81377, Munich, Germany. .,Institute of Health Economics and Health Care Management, Helmholtz Zentrum München GmbH, German Research Center for Environmental Health, 85764, Neuherberg, Germany.
| | - Stephan Bose-O'Reilly
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, University Hospital, LMU Munich, 80336, Munich, Germany.,Institute of Public Health, Medical Decision Making and Health Technology Assessment, UMIT Private University for Health Sciences, Medical Informatics and Technology, Eduard Wallnoefer Center I, 6060, Hall in Tirol, Austria
| | - Dennis Shoko
- Tailjet Consultancy Services, Vainona, Borrowdale, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Josephine Singo
- National University of Science and Technology, PO Box AC 939, Ascot, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe
| | - Nadine Steckling-Muschack
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, University Hospital, LMU Munich, 80336, Munich, Germany.,Institute of Public Health, Medical Decision Making and Health Technology Assessment, UMIT Private University for Health Sciences, Medical Informatics and Technology, Eduard Wallnoefer Center I, 6060, Hall in Tirol, Austria
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Alluvial Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining in A River Stream—Rutsiro Case Study (Rwanda). FORESTS 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/f11070762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Artisanal and small-scale mining is a significant economic sector in Rwanda. Mining activities often use a watercourse, in which secondary extraction takes place and minerals are washed. Mining thus greatly affects the geomorphological conditions in the area. The aim of this paper is a digest of environmental impacts of alluvial artisanal and small-scale mining with a focus on anthropogenic influences on topography with regard to the methods used in raw material mining. The author draws on a case study from the mining site of Rutsiro district in Rwanda. Main findings of alluvial artisanal mining in a riverscape are changes in landscape structure, deforestation, intensification of geomorphological processes, new relief shapes (suffosion depressions, check dams, gravel benches, anthropogenic channels) and hydrological river regime, chemical pollution of soil and watercourses. Artisanal and small-scale mining may lead to a significant change and acceleration of fluvial processes. This paper covers a broad understanding of environmental impacts of alluvial artisanal and small-scale mining with a focus on anthropogenic influencing.
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Mambrey V, Rakete S, Tobollik M, Shoko D, Moyo D, Schutzmeier P, Steckling-Muschack N, Muteti-Fana S, Bose-O'Reilly S. Artisanal and small-scale gold mining: A cross-sectional assessment of occupational mercury exposure and exposure risk factors in Kadoma and Shurugwi, Zimbabwe. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2020; 184:109379. [PMID: 32197122 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2020.109379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Revised: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
In artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) the toxic metal mercury is used for gold extraction. The objective of this cross-sectional study was to assess mercury concentrations in urine and blood and mercury-related symptoms of participants identifying themselves as miners from Kadoma and Shurugwi, Zimbabwe. Moreover, we aimed to explore possible risk factors influencing mercury body burden. In 2019, urine and blood samples of 207 participants were collected and analyzed for mercury using atomic absorption spectroscopy. All participants answered questions regarding their exposure risks. The median urine mercury value was 4.75 μg/L with a maximum of 612 μg/L. Median mercury concentration in creatinine corrected urine values was 3.98 μg/g with a maximum value of 478 μg/g. The median blood mercury value was 2.70 μg/L with a maximum of 167 μg/L. Correlations between exposure risks factors such as the lack of retort use and elevated mercury values were demonstrated. ASGM is very common in Zimbabwe. Thus, mercury exposure is a major occupational health risk for miners. Moreover, this study emphasizes the impact of exposure risk factors on the mercury body burden.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viola Mambrey
- Institute for Medical Information Processing, Biometry and Epidemiology - IBE, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany; Pettenkofer School of Public Health, Munich, Germany; Institute and Clinic for Occupational, Social- and Environmental Medicine, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Ziemssenstr. 1, D-80336, Munich, Germany.
| | - Stefan Rakete
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational, Social- and Environmental Medicine, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Ziemssenstr. 1, D-80336, Munich, Germany.
| | - Myriam Tobollik
- Department Environment and Health, School of Public Health, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany; Section Exposure Assessment and Health Indicators, German Environment Agency, Berlin, Germany.
| | | | - Dingani Moyo
- University of the Witwatersrand, School of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, Occupational Health Division, Johannesburg, South Africa; Midlands State University, Faculty of Medicine & Faculty of Social Sciences, Gweru, Zimbabwe.
| | - Paul Schutzmeier
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational, Social- and Environmental Medicine, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Ziemssenstr. 1, D-80336, Munich, Germany.
| | - Nadine Steckling-Muschack
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational, Social- and Environmental Medicine, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Ziemssenstr. 1, D-80336, Munich, Germany; Institute of Public Health, Medical Decision Making and Health Technology Assessment, Department of Public Health, Health Services Research and Health Technology Assessment, UMITPrivate University for Health Sciences, Medical Informatics and Technology, Hall I.T, Austria.
| | - Shamiso Muteti-Fana
- Department of Community Medicine, UZ College of Health Sciences, Harare, Zimbabwe.
| | - Stephan Bose-O'Reilly
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational, Social- and Environmental Medicine, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Ziemssenstr. 1, D-80336, Munich, Germany; Institute of Public Health, Medical Decision Making and Health Technology Assessment, Department of Public Health, Health Services Research and Health Technology Assessment, UMITPrivate University for Health Sciences, Medical Informatics and Technology, Hall I.T, Austria; University Children's Hospital Regensburg (KUNO-Clinics), University of Regensburg, Clinic St. Hedwig, Regensburg, Germany.
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Bruno DE, Ruban DA, Tiess G, Pirrone N, Perrotta P, Mikhailenko AV, Ermolaev VA, Yashalova NN. Artisanal and small-scale gold mining, meandering tropical rivers, and geological heritage: Evidence from Brazil and Indonesia. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 715:136907. [PMID: 32041045 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.136907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2019] [Revised: 01/22/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) flourishes along many tropical rivers, and it still requires proper documentation in many countries, as well as interpretation in terms of rational resource exploitation and wildlife preservation. In this study we used remote sensing techniques to analyze two representative examples of ASGM: one along the Marupa River in Brazil (Tapajós Domain) and another one along the Kahayan River in Indonesia (Central Kalimantan). The documented spatial extent of ASGM is ~9175 km2 along the Marupa River and ~30,427 km2 along the Kahayan River. It was established these activities change rapidly (2-3 years) in space. Although active and inactive sites occur in both areas, a great number of inactive sites distinguish the Marupa River. It is very crucial that ASGM along the Marupa and Kahayan rivers link strongly to watercourse meanders, but also changes river valley morphology. This is an interesting evidence of coupled fluvial-anthropic morphodynamics of meandering river valleys. Geological phenomena represented in the study areas include gold resource exploitation (economic phenomenon), landforms and their dynamics (geomorphological phenomenon), and mercury environmental pollution (geochemical phenomenon). Due to remarkable spatial extent and evident interconnection, these phenomena seem to be unique and, thus, constituting geological heritage. Identification of the latter means that ASGM sites add value to the local environment. A paradox is that illegal and mercury-releasing ASGM needs termination, but such an action will result in the loss of the noted geological heritage value. Solution to this paradox requires careful development of plans for local management. However, it is clear that the presence of the noted heritage requires turning more attention to ASGM and their natural (river valley) context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Delia E Bruno
- Institute of Atmospheric Pollution Research, CNR, c/o UNICAL Polifunzionale, Rende 87036, Italy; Agency for International Minerals Policy (MinPol GmbH), Dundlerinweg 120/1, Dreistetten A2753, Austria.
| | - Dmitry A Ruban
- Agency for International Minerals Policy (MinPol GmbH), Dundlerinweg 120/1, Dreistetten A2753, Austria; K.G. Razumovsky Moscow State University of Technologies and Management (the First Cossack University), Zemlyanoy Val Street 73, Moscow 109004, Russia; Higher School of Business, Southern Federal University, 23-ja Linija Street 43, Rostov-on-Don 344019, Russia
| | - Günter Tiess
- Agency for International Minerals Policy (MinPol GmbH), Dundlerinweg 120/1, Dreistetten A2753, Austria; Faculty of Mining and Geology, VSB - Technical University of Ostrava, Ostrava 70032, Czech Republic.
| | - Nicola Pirrone
- Institute of Atmospheric Pollution Research, CNR, c/o UNICAL Polifunzionale, Rende 87036, Italy.
| | | | - Anna V Mikhailenko
- Department of Physical Geography, Ecology, and Nature Protection, Institute of Earth Sciences, Southern Federal University, Zorge Street 40, Rostov-on-Don 344090, Russia
| | - Vladimir A Ermolaev
- Department of Commodity Science and Expertise, Plekhanov Russian University of Economics, Stremyanny Lane 36, Moscow 117997, Russia
| | - Natalia N Yashalova
- Department of Economics and Management, Business School, Cherepovets State University, Sovetskiy Avenue 10, Cherepovets, Vologda Region 162600, Russia
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Prescott GW, Maung AC, Aung Z, Carrasco LR, De Alban JDT, Diment AN, Ko AK, Rao M, Schmidt‐Vogt D, Soe YM, Webb EL. Gold, farms, and forests: Enforcement and alternative livelihoods are unlikely to disincentivize informal gold mining. CONSERVATION SCIENCE AND PRACTICE 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/csp2.142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Graham W. Prescott
- Department of Biological SciencesNational University of Singapore Singapore Singapore
- Institute of Plant SciencesUniversity of Bern Bern Switzerland
| | - Aye Chan Maung
- Forest Research InstituteYezin, Zayarthiri Township Naypyitaw Myanmar
| | - Zinmar Aung
- Wildlife Conservation Society Myanmar Yangon Myanmar
| | - L. Roman Carrasco
- Department of Biological SciencesNational University of Singapore Singapore Singapore
| | - Jose Don T. De Alban
- Department of Biological SciencesNational University of Singapore Singapore Singapore
| | - Alex N. Diment
- Wildlife Conservation Society Myanmar Yangon Myanmar
- Wildlife Conservation SocietyCentre for Global Conservation Bronx New York
| | - Aye Ko Ko
- Wildlife Conservation Society Myanmar Yangon Myanmar
| | - Madhu Rao
- Department of Biological SciencesNational University of Singapore Singapore Singapore
- Wildlife Conservation SocietyCentre for Global Conservation Bronx New York
| | - Dietrich Schmidt‐Vogt
- Chair of Silviculture, Faculty of Environment and Natural ResourcesFreiburg University Freiburg Germany
| | - Yi Monn Soe
- Wildlife Conservation Society Myanmar Yangon Myanmar
| | - Edward L. Webb
- Department of Biological SciencesNational University of Singapore Singapore Singapore
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Konkel L. A Safer Gold Rush? Curbing Mercury Pollution in Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2019; 127:112001. [PMID: 31763929 PMCID: PMC6927505 DOI: 10.1289/ehp6417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2019] [Accepted: 10/21/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
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The Importance of Mineralogical Knowledge in the Sustainability of Artisanal Gold Mining: A Mid-South Peru Case. MINERALS 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/min9060345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Mineralogy and gold processing techniques from several mining areas of the Nazca-Ocoña gold belt, Mid-South Peru, were investigated to assess the efficiency of gold extraction methods in relation to their mineralogy. The deposits from this belt are intrusion gold related to mineralization in quartz veins. Native gold occurs as micrometric grains encapsulated in pyrite and in minor amounts in other sulfides and quartz. Electrum is found mainly in fractures of pyrite and attains up to 35 wt. % Ag. In addition to these occurrences, gold tellurides also occur and they are abundant in San Luis. Gold processing is carried out by amalgamation with mercury and/or cyanidation. The comparison of the gold grade in the mineralizations and in the residual tailings indicates that a significant amount of gold is not recovered using the mercury amalgamation process and also, in the case of the gold recovery by cyanidation, except when cement was added to the cyanide solution. This was due to an increase in the pH that favours the dissolution of the gold matrix. In the cyanidation process carried out in tailings previously treated with mercury, part of the mercury retained in them is released to the atmosphere or to the cyanidation fluids.
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Mason RP, Baumann Z, Hansen G, Yao KM, Coulibaly M, Coulibaly S. An assessment of the impact of artisanal and commercial gold mining on mercury and methylmercury levels in the environment and fish in Cote d'Ivoire. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 665:1158-1167. [PMID: 30893747 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.01.393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2018] [Revised: 01/28/2019] [Accepted: 01/29/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) activities are an important source of mercury (Hg) to the atmosphere globally, and in most countries in West Africa, where gold production has increased dramatically in the last decade from both commercial and ASGM activities. This study focused on examining the concentrations of Hg and methylmercury (MeHg) in water, sediments and fish in four regions associated with gold mining activities in Cote d'Ivoire to assess the potential exposure of the local communities to MeHg from fish consumption. Concentrations of dissolved total Hg and MeHg in water and sediment were elevated at some locations sample and were indicative of local contamination. Several locations had sediment total Hg above 100 ng g-1 and sediment %MeHg ranged from 0.03 to 4.4%. Fish concentrations exceeded 0.3 μg/ g wet wt., especially for carnivores and fish caught in the western region of the country. Bioaccumulation factors, relative to dissolved MeHg, were higher for carnivores than omnivores and varied with region, suggesting other factors besides MeHg concentration alone were impacting uptake and trophic transfer. Given that people in Cote d'Ivoire consume fish at a higher level than other countries, the levels in fish were sufficient to exceed the US EPA's guidance criteria even at average consumption levels, and particularly for people consuming fish at a higher rate. Overall, this study provides compelling evidence that ASGM activities in Cote d'Ivoire are leading to elevated exposure and likely impacting the health of the local populations in regions where such activity is occurring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert P Mason
- Dept. Marine Sciences, University of Connecticut, Groton, CT, USA.
| | - Zofia Baumann
- Dept. Marine Sciences, University of Connecticut, Groton, CT, USA
| | - Gunnar Hansen
- Dept. Marine Sciences, University of Connecticut, Groton, CT, USA
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Kahhat R, Parodi E, Larrea-Gallegos G, Mesta C, Vázquez-Rowe I. Environmental impacts of the life cycle of alluvial gold mining in the Peruvian Amazon rainforest. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 662:940-951. [PMID: 30795481 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.01.246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2018] [Revised: 01/18/2019] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Alluvial gold mining activities in the Peruvian Amazon rainforest are responsible for mercury emissions and deforestation. To understand related environmental impacts, specifically toxicity and climate change, this study uses Life Cycle Assessment methodology. Four predominant extraction systems were selected and modelled and three scenarios that reflect currently available gold recovery systems were modelled: amalgamation, amalgamation with mercury recovery through retort system and gravimetric tables. The USEtox and IPCC life cycle impact assessment methods were used to assess the environmental impacts in term of human toxicity, freshwater ecotoxicity and climate change. Results show that for all systems, human toxicity values are governed by mercury emissions in gold recovery activities (ca. 80%). However, the use of retort significantly lowers these impacts (ca. 90%). Machines and diesel use for ore extraction and freighting activities drive freshwater ecotoxicity. Moreover, deforestation has a major contribution on the environmental impacts related to climate change. However, these impacts are dependent on the type of extraction system. Although human toxicity, freshwater ecotoxicity and climate change are frequently studied separately, a direct relationship between them has been identified in this system. Finally, beyond the environmental burdens related to alluvial gold mining, there are impacts affecting the social, cultural, and economic dimensions that will need to be analyzed to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramzy Kahhat
- Peruvian Life Cycle Network (PELCAN), Department of Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Av. Universitaria 1801 San Miguel, 15088 Lima, Peru.
| | - Eduardo Parodi
- Peruvian Life Cycle Network (PELCAN), Department of Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Av. Universitaria 1801 San Miguel, 15088 Lima, Peru
| | - Gustavo Larrea-Gallegos
- Peruvian Life Cycle Network (PELCAN), Department of Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Av. Universitaria 1801 San Miguel, 15088 Lima, Peru
| | - Carlos Mesta
- Peruvian Life Cycle Network (PELCAN), Department of Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Av. Universitaria 1801 San Miguel, 15088 Lima, Peru
| | - Ian Vázquez-Rowe
- Peruvian Life Cycle Network (PELCAN), Department of Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Av. Universitaria 1801 San Miguel, 15088 Lima, Peru
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Stocklin-Weinberg R, Veiga MM, Marshall BG. Training artisanal miners: A proposed framework with performance evaluation indicators. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 660:1533-1541. [PMID: 30743945 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.01.113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2018] [Revised: 01/09/2019] [Accepted: 01/10/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Worldwide, approximately 30 million people depend directly on artisanal mining of many different minerals to provide for themselves and their families. However, poverty and a lack of education and training keep artisanal miners trapped in a cycle of rudimentary practices, which generate both environmental and health impacts. As the needs and motivations of artisanal miners are often ignored, previous attempts to deliver training projects have resulted in little sustained success. A successful training project for artisanal miners should be site-specific, including implementation of a thorough evaluation plan to monitor progress of the project's initiatives through established indicators. Frequently, training projects are restricted to the specifications of the funding donor, instead of designing initiatives that adequately reflect the realities of the context in which the training will take place. Furthermore, it is imperative that any training project uses a bottom-up approach that incorporates knowledge garnered from the successes and mistakes of previous projects. In this study, after analysis of previous and current training efforts, the attributes of a successful training project were outlined, including the importance of training champions within artisanal miner communities, drawing effectively on government support, and providing simple, affordable and profitable techniques to improve productivity and reduce environmental impacts. In addition, a framework with performance indicators was mapped out to show how a successful training project could be designed, implemented, monitored and evaluated, including the need to incorporate inclusive consultation, cultural sensitivity and consistently applied protocols into every step of the project. Instead of instructing practitioners on what the training should cover, the framework outlines how a training project's design can be informed by the needs of a particular mining sector. Ultimately, this kind of framework can serve as a template for practitioners working in diverse sectors around the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruby Stocklin-Weinberg
- Norman B. Keevil Institute of Mining Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Marcello M Veiga
- Norman B. Keevil Institute of Mining Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
| | - Bruce G Marshall
- Norman B. Keevil Institute of Mining Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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Deforestation and Forest Degradation Due to Gold Mining in the Peruvian Amazon: A 34-Year Perspective. REMOTE SENSING 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/rs10121903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
While deforestation rates decline globally they are rising in the Western Amazon. Artisanal-scale gold mining (ASGM) is a large cause of this deforestation and brings with it extensive environmental, social, governance, and public health impacts, including large carbon emissions and mercury pollution. Underlying ASGM is a broad network of factors that influence its growth, distribution, and practices such as poverty, flows of legal and illegal capital, conflicting governance, and global economic trends. Despite its central role in land use and land cover change in the Western Amazon and the severity of its social and environmental impacts, it is relatively poorly studied. While ASGM in Southeastern Peru has been quantified previously, doing so is difficult due to the heterogeneous nature of the resulting landscape. Using a novel approach to classify mining that relies on a fusion of CLASlite and the Global Forest Change dataset, two Landsat-based deforestation detection tools, we sought to quantify ASGM-caused deforestation in the period 1984–2017 in the southern Peruvian Amazon and examine trends in the geography, methods, and impacts of ASGM across that time. We identify nearly 100,000 ha of deforestation due to ASGM in the 34-year study period, an increase of 21% compared to previous estimates. Further, we find that 10% of that deforestation occurred in 2017, the highest annual amount of deforestation in the study period, with 53% occurring since 2011. Finally, we demonstrate that not all mining is created equal by examining key patterns and changes in ASGM activity and techniques through time and space. We discuss their connections with, and impacts on, socio-economic factors, such as land tenure, infrastructure, international markets, governance efforts, and social and environmental impacts.
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Steckling N, Tobollik M, Plass D, Hornberg C, Ericson B, Fuller R, Bose-O'Reilly S. Global Burden of Disease of Mercury Used in Artisanal Small-Scale Gold Mining. Ann Glob Health 2018; 83:234-247. [PMID: 28619398 DOI: 10.1016/j.aogh.2016.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Artisanal small-scale gold mining (ASGM) is the world's largest anthropogenic source of mercury emission. Gold miners are highly exposed to metallic mercury and suffer occupational mercury intoxication. The global disease burden as a result of this exposure is largely unknown because the informal character of ASGM restricts the availability of reliable data. OBJECTIVE To estimate the prevalence of occupational mercury intoxication and the disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) attributable to chronic metallic mercury vapor intoxication (CMMVI) among ASGM gold miners globally and in selected countries. METHODS Estimates of the number of artisanal small-scale gold (ASG) miners were extracted from reviews supplemented by a literature search. Prevalence of moderate CMMVI among miners was determined by compiling a dataset of available studies that assessed frequency of intoxication in gold miners using a standardized diagnostic tool and biomonitoring data on mercury in urine. Severe cases of CMMVI were not included because it was assumed that these persons can no longer be employed as miners. Cases in workers' families and communities were not considered. Years lived with disability as a result of CMMVI among ASG miners were quantified by multiplying the number of prevalent cases of CMMVI by the appropriate disability weight. No deaths are expected to result from CMMVI and therefore years of life lost were not calculated. Disease burden was calculated by multiplying the prevalence rate with the number of miners for each country and the disability weight. Sensitivity analyses were performed using different assumptions on the number of miners and the intoxication prevalence rate. FINDINGS Globally, 14-19 million workers are employed as ASG miners. Based on human biomonitoring data, between 25% and 33% of these miners-3.3-6.5 million miners globally-suffer from moderate CMMVI. The resulting global burden of disease is estimated to range from 1.22 (uncertainty interval [UI] 0.87-1.61) to 2.39 (UI 1.69-3.14) million DALYs. CONCLUSIONS This study presents the first global and country-based estimates of disease burden caused by mercury intoxication in ASGM. Data availability and quality limit the results, and the total disease burden is likely undercounted. Despite these limitations, the data clearly indicate that mercury intoxication in ASG miners is a major, largely neglected global health problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadine Steckling
- Bielefeld University, School of Public Health, Department Environment & Health, Bielefeld, Germany; University Hospital Munich, WHO Collaborating Centre for Occupational Health, Institute and Outpatient Clinic for Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, Unit Paediatric Environmental Epidemiology, Munich, Germany; Department of Public Health and Health Technology Assessment, University for Health Sciences, Medical Computer Science and Technology, Hall in Tirol, Austria.
| | - Myriam Tobollik
- Bielefeld University, School of Public Health, Department Environment & Health, Bielefeld, Germany; German Environment Agency, Section Exposure Assessment and Environmental Health Indicators, Berlin, Germany
| | - Dietrich Plass
- German Environment Agency, Section Exposure Assessment and Environmental Health Indicators, Berlin, Germany
| | - Claudia Hornberg
- Bielefeld University, School of Public Health, Department Environment & Health, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Bret Ericson
- Pure Earth, formerly Blacksmith Institute, New York, NY
| | | | - Stephan Bose-O'Reilly
- University Hospital Munich, WHO Collaborating Centre for Occupational Health, Institute and Outpatient Clinic for Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, Unit Paediatric Environmental Epidemiology, Munich, Germany; Department of Public Health and Health Technology Assessment, University for Health Sciences, Medical Computer Science and Technology, Hall in Tirol, Austria
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