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Jeronimo M, Mastel M, Gill J, Davies H. Validation of a sampling method and liquid chromatography mass spectrometry analysis method for measurement of fentanyl and five other illicit drugs. Ann Work Expo Health 2024; 68:756-764. [PMID: 38860926 PMCID: PMC11306312 DOI: 10.1093/annweh/wxae048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/12/2024] Open
Abstract
With the increased provision of services by health authorities and community organizations allowing supervised inhalation of illicit substances comes concerns about the potential for secondhand exposure to the substances being used, whether in the adjacent community or to workers at the sites. In order to address community concerns surrounding secondhand illicit substance exposure and better protect harm reduction workers, a validated sampling and LC-MS/MS analysis method was developed for 6 illicit drugs: fentanyl, heroin, methamphetamine, cocaine, etizolam, and bromazolam. It was found that the filter used needed to be silanized to be made more inert and avoid loss of analyte due to degradation. Using the silanized filters, recoveries were good (>90%) and the collected samples were found to be stable at room temperature for 2 wk. The sampling volume validated was up to 960 L. The sensitivity and range of the method make it appropriate for short-term (15 min), full shift (8 h), or environmental sampling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Jeronimo
- School of Population and Public Health, University of British Columbia, 2206 East Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Molly Mastel
- School of Population and Public Health, University of British Columbia, 2206 East Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Jasleen Gill
- School of Population and Public Health, University of British Columbia, 2206 East Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Hugh Davies
- School of Population and Public Health, University of British Columbia, 2206 East Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z3, Canada
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2
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López A, Fuentes E, Yusà V, Ibáñez M, Coscollà C. Identification of Unknown Substances in Ambient Air (PM10), Profiles and Differences between Rural, Urban and Industrial Areas. TOXICS 2022; 10:toxics10050220. [PMID: 35622634 PMCID: PMC9145881 DOI: 10.3390/toxics10050220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Revised: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022]
Abstract
A fast and automated strategy has been developed for identifying unknown substances in the atmosphere (concretely, in the particulate matter, PM10) using LC-HRMS (MS3). A total of 15 samples were collected in three different areas (rural, urban and industrial). A sampling flow rate of 30 m3 h−1 was applied for 24 h, sampling a total volume of around 720 m3. A total of 49 compounds were tentatively identified using very restrictive criteria regarding exact mass, retention time, isotopic profile and both MS2 and MS3 spectra. Pesticides, pharmaceutical active compounds, drugs, plasticizers and metabolites were the most identified compounds. To verify whether the developed methodology was suitable, 11 substances were checked with their analytical standards and all of them were confirmed. Different profiles for industrial, rural and urban areas were examined. The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) model allowed us to separate the obtained data of the three assessed area. When the profiles obtained in the three evaluated areas were compared using a Volcano plot (the rural area was taken as reference), 11 compounds were confirmed as being discriminant: three of them (3-hydroxy-2-methylpyridine, 3-methyladenine and nicotine) were more likely to be found in industrial sites; ten compounds (3-hydroxy-2-methylpyridine, 3-methyladenine, azoxystrobin, cocaine, cotinine, ethoprophos, imidacloprid, metalaxyl-M, nicotine and pyrimethanil) were more probable in the case of urban sites; finally, triisopropanolamine was more likely to be detected in rural locations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio López
- Foundation for the Promotion of Health and Biomedical Research in the Valencian Region, FISABIO-Public Health, 21, Avenida Catalunya, 46020 Valencia, Spain; (A.L.); (E.F.); (V.Y.)
| | - Esther Fuentes
- Foundation for the Promotion of Health and Biomedical Research in the Valencian Region, FISABIO-Public Health, 21, Avenida Catalunya, 46020 Valencia, Spain; (A.L.); (E.F.); (V.Y.)
- Environmental and Public Health Analytical Chemistry, Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, S/N, Avenida Sos Baynat, 12071 Castelló de la Plana, Spain;
| | - Vicent Yusà
- Foundation for the Promotion of Health and Biomedical Research in the Valencian Region, FISABIO-Public Health, 21, Avenida Catalunya, 46020 Valencia, Spain; (A.L.); (E.F.); (V.Y.)
- Public Health Laboratory of Valencia, 21, Avenida Catalunya, 46020 Valencia, Spain
- Analytical Chemistry Department, University of Valencia, Edifici Jeroni Muñoz, Dr. Moliner 50, 46100 Burjassot, Spain
| | - María Ibáñez
- Environmental and Public Health Analytical Chemistry, Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, S/N, Avenida Sos Baynat, 12071 Castelló de la Plana, Spain;
| | - Clara Coscollà
- Foundation for the Promotion of Health and Biomedical Research in the Valencian Region, FISABIO-Public Health, 21, Avenida Catalunya, 46020 Valencia, Spain; (A.L.); (E.F.); (V.Y.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-96-192-6333
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3
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Detection of Eight Cannabinoids and One Tracer in Wastewater and River Water by SPE-UPLC–ESI-MS/MS. WATER 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/w14040588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The consumption of illicit drugs represents a global social and economic problem. Using suitable analytical methods, monitoring, and detection of different illegal drugs residues and their metabolites in wastewater samples can help combat this problem. Our article defines a method to develop, validate, and practically applicate a rapid and robust analytical process for the evaluation of six naturally occurring cannabinoids (CBG, CBD, CBDV, CBN, THC, THCV), two cannabinoids in acidic form (CBDA, THCA-A), and the major cannabis-related human metabolite (THC-COOH). After SPE offline enrichment, we used a UPLC–ESI-MS/MS system, which permitted the determination of several by-products. Studied matrices were samples of different origins: (i) effluent water from a wastewater treatment plant in the Porto urban area; (ii) environmental water from Febros River, the last left-bank tributary of the Douro River. The multi-residue approach was substantiated and successfully employed to analyze the water samples collected in the above locations. The rapid and precise quantification of nine different cannabinoids in different water samples occurred within nine minutes at the ng L−1 level. The appearance of dozens of ng L−1 of some cannabis secondary metabolites, such as CBD, CBDA, CBN, THCA-A, indicates this plant species’ widespread usage among the general population in the considered area.
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4
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Paul R, Smith S, Gent L, Sutherill R. Air monitoring for synthetic cannabinoids in a UK prison: Application of personal air sampling and fixed sequential sampling with thermal desorption two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Drug Test Anal 2021; 13:1678-1685. [PMID: 34019732 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2020] [Revised: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, there have been increasing complaints from staff working in UK prisons of secondary exposure to psychoactive drug fumes, often believed to be synthetic cannabinoids. Our pilot study aimed to provide an initial evidence base for this issue and reveal compounds of interest within indoor prison air. Here, we present a new method for the detection of synthetic cannabinoids in air and demonstrate its application in a UK prison. Air sampling was conducted using a fixed sequential sampler, alongside personal air sampling units worn by prison officers within an English prison. Air samples were collected onto thermal desorption (TD) tubes and analysed via comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC × GC-TOF MS). This study is the first of its kind in a prison setting, and the approach is of importance to analytical scientists, policy makers and public health employees tasked with the health and safety of prison staff. GC × GC-TOF MS analysis was able to separate and identify a range of compounds present in the prison air samples. Analysis of the TD tubes did not reveal any synthetic cannabinoids from the fixed pump air samples or the personal pump samples worn by prison officers. Air monitoring in prisons presents a challenge of logistics and science. Fixed sequential air sampling combined with personal air monitoring devices allowed air from multiple locations within a prison to be collected, providing a comprehensive approach to evaluating the air that prison staff is exposed to during a fixed time period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Paul
- Department of Life and Environmental Science, Bournemouth University, Dorset, UK
| | | | - Luke Gent
- Department of Life and Environmental Science, Bournemouth University, Dorset, UK
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5
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Gent L, Paul R. Air monitoring for illegal drugs including new psychoactive substances: A review of trends, techniques and thermal degradation products. Drug Test Anal 2021; 13:1078-1094. [PMID: 33870654 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Revised: 03/17/2021] [Accepted: 04/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The detection of illicit psychotropic substances in both indoor and outdoor air is a challenging analytical discipline, and the data from such investigation may provide intelligence in a variety of fields. Applications of drug monitoring in air include providing data on national and international drug consumption trends, as monitored by organisations such as the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) and the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). Air monitoring enables mapping of illicit drug manufacturing, dealing or consumption in cities and the identification of emergent compounds including the recent proliferation of new psychoactive substances (NPS). The rapid spread of NPS has changed the global drug market with greater diversity and dynamic spread of such compounds over several nations. This review provides an up to date analysis of key thematic areas within this analytical discipline. The process of how illicit psychotropic substances spread from emission sources to the atmosphere is considered alongside the sampling and analytical procedures involved. Applications of the technique applied globally are reviewed with studies ranging from the analysis of individual dwellings through to major international air-monitoring campaigns providing evidence on global drug trends. Finally, we consider thermal breakdown products of illicit psychotropic substances including NPS that are released upon heating, combustion or vaping and related potential for exposure to these compounds in the air.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luke Gent
- Faculty of Science and Technology, Bournemouth University, Dorset, UK
| | - Richard Paul
- Faculty of Science and Technology, Bournemouth University, Dorset, UK
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6
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Chen X, Wu X, Luan T, Jiang R, Ouyang G. Sample preparation and instrumental methods for illicit drugs in environmental and biological samples: A review. J Chromatogr A 2021; 1640:461961. [PMID: 33582515 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2021.461961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2020] [Revised: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Detection of illicit drugs in the environmental samples has been challenged as the consumption increases globally. Current review examines the recent developments and applications of sample preparation techniques for illicit drugs in solid, liquid, and gas samples. For solid samples, traditional sample preparation methods such as liquid-phase extraction, solid-phase extraction, and the ones with external energy including microwave-assisted, ultrasonic-assisted, and pressurized liquid extraction were commonly used. The sample preparation methods mainly applied for liquid samples were microextraction techniques including solid-phase microextraction, microextraction by packed sorbent, dispersive solid-phase extraction, dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction, hollow fiber-based liquid-phase microextraction, and so on. Capillary microextraction of volatiles and airborne particulate sampling were primarily utilized to extract illicit drugs from gas samples. Besides, the paper introduced recently developed instrumental techniques applied to detect illicit drugs. Liquid chromatograph mass spectrometry and gas chromatograph mass spectrometry were the most widely used methods for illicit drugs samples. In addition, the development of ambient mass spectrometry techniques, such as desorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry and paper spray mass spectrometry, created potential for rapid in-situ analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinlv Chen
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China
| | - Xinyan Wu
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China
| | - Tiangang Luan
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Psychoactive Substances Monitoring and safety, Institute of Environmental and Ecological Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, 100 Waihuanxi Road, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Ruifen Jiang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China.
| | - Gangfeng Ouyang
- KLGHEI of Environment and Energy Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Emergency Test for Dangerous Chemicals, Guangdong Institute of Analysis (China National Analytical Center Guangzhou), Guangzhou, 510070, China; Chemistry College, Center of Advanced Analysis and Gene Sequencing, Zhengzhou University, Kexue Avenue 100, Zhengzhou 450001, China.
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7
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Determination of heterocyclic aromatic amines in airborne particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) from different emission sources by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Microchem J 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2018.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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8
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Wille SMR. Fingerprint Drug Analysis: Overcoming Pitfalls and Heading Toward the Future? Clin Chem 2018; 64:879-881. [DOI: 10.1373/clinchem.2018.288886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2018] [Accepted: 03/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah M R Wille
- National Institute of Criminalistics and Criminology, Laboratory of Toxicology, Brussels, Belgium
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9
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Ferrey ML, Coreen Hamilton M, Backe WJ, Anderson KE. Pharmaceuticals and other anthropogenic chemicals in atmospheric particulates and precipitation. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 612:1488-1497. [PMID: 28910962 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.06.201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2017] [Revised: 06/23/2017] [Accepted: 06/23/2017] [Indexed: 04/15/2023]
Abstract
Air and precipitation samples were analyzed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) for pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and other commercial chemicals within the St. Paul/Minneapolis metropolitan area of Minnesota, U.S. Of the 126 chemicals analyzed, 17 were detected at least once. Bisphenol A, N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide (DEET), and cocaine were the most frequently detected; their maximum concentrations in snow were 3.80, 9.49, and 0.171ng/L and in air were 0.137, 0.370, and 0.033ng/m3, respectively. DEET and cocaine were present in samples of rain up to 14.5 and 0.806ng/L, respectively. Four antibiotics - ofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, enrofloxacin, and sulfamethoxazole - were detected at concentrations up to 10.3ng/L in precipitation, while ofloxacin was the sole antibiotic detected in air at 0.013ng/m3. The X-ray contrast agent iopamidol and the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug naproxen were detected in snow up to 228ng/L and 3.74ng/L, respectively, while caffeine was detected only in air at 0.069 and 0.111ng/m3. Benzothiazole was present in rain up to 70ng/L, while derivatives of benzotriazole - 4-methylbenzotriazole, 5-methylbenzotriazole, and 5-chlorobenzotriazole - were detected at concentrations up to 1.5ng/L in rain and 3.4ng/L in snow. Nonylphenol and nonylphenol monoethoxylate were detected once in air at 0.165 and 0.032ng/m3, respectively. Although the sources of these chemicals to atmosphere are not known, fugacity analysis suggests that wastewater may be a source of nonylphenol, nonylphenol monoethoxylate, DEET, and caffeine to atmosphere. The land-spreading of biosolids is known to generate PM10 that could also account for the presence of these contaminants in air. Micro-pollutant detections in air and precipitation are similar to the profile of contaminants reported previously for surface water. This proof of concept study suggests that atmospheric transport of these chemicals may partially explain the ubiquity of these contaminants in the aquatic environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark L Ferrey
- Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, 520 Lafayette Road, St. Paul, MN 55155-4194, USA.
| | - M Coreen Hamilton
- SGS AXYS Analytical Services, Ltd, 2045 Mills Road West, Sidney, British Columbia V8L 562, Canada.
| | - Will J Backe
- Minnesota Department of Health, 601 Robert St. North, St. Paul, MN 55155-2531, USA.
| | - Kurt E Anderson
- Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, 520 Lafayette Road, St. Paul, MN 55155-4194, USA.
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Armaković S, Armaković SJ, Tomić BT, Pillai RR, Panicker CY. Adsorption properties of graphene towards the ephedrine – A frequently used molecule in sport. COMPUT THEOR CHEM 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.comptc.2017.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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11
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Cecinato A, Romagnoli P, Perilli M, Balducci C. Pharmaceutical substances in ambient particulates: A preliminary assessment. CHEMOSPHERE 2017; 183:62-68. [PMID: 28535462 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.05.100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2017] [Revised: 05/15/2017] [Accepted: 05/16/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Till now, no attention has been paid to pharmaceuticals (PCs) in the air, though they are known to affect waters, soils, foods and biota. This paper describes the first attempt to characterize the PC occurrence in the air. Airborne particulates (PM10 or PM2.5 fractions, from Amsterdam, Netherland, Rome and Rende, Italy) were sampled on quartz fiber filter by means of pumping systems operating at medium-volume conditions (16 or 38.5 L min-1). The samples were solvent extracted through sonication with a dichloromethane:acetone:methanol mixture and reduced close to dryness; three fractions of the residue were separated through column chromatography; they comprised non polar, low polar and very polar organic compounds, respectively, and PCs were in the third one. Chemical analysis was performed by means of gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometric detection (GC-MSD), after treatment of solutions with methyl,tertzbutylsilyl-trifluoroacetamide (MTBSTFA) to form silyl derivatives of most PCs. The following substances were investigated: acetaminophenol, ibuprofen, ketoprofen, fenoprefen, naproxen, fenofibrate, diclofenac, acetylcysteine and sulfanilamide; p-hydroxybenzoic acid and salicylic acid; and parabens (methyl, ethyl and propyl). Except aspirin, acetamidophenol, acetylcysteine and sulfanilamide, the target compounds could be quantified with good repeatability, reproducibility and percent recoveries (on the average, ∼7.5%, ∼7.1% and 91%, respectively). The PC concentrations ranged <0.1-8.6 ng m-3; season dependent drug profiles could be observed in Rome and Rende.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelo Cecinato
- National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Atmospheric Pollution Research (CNR-IIA), via Salaria, km 29.3, P. O. Box 10, 00015 Monterotondo RM, Italy.
| | - Paola Romagnoli
- National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Atmospheric Pollution Research (CNR-IIA), via Salaria, km 29.3, P. O. Box 10, 00015 Monterotondo RM, Italy
| | - Mattia Perilli
- National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Atmospheric Pollution Research (CNR-IIA), via Salaria, km 29.3, P. O. Box 10, 00015 Monterotondo RM, Italy
| | - Catia Balducci
- National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Atmospheric Pollution Research (CNR-IIA), via Salaria, km 29.3, P. O. Box 10, 00015 Monterotondo RM, Italy
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Cecinato A, Romagnoli P, Perilli M, Balducci C. Psychotropic substances in house dusts: a preliminary assessment. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2017; 24:21256-21261. [PMID: 28736802 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-017-9549-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2017] [Accepted: 06/14/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Psychotropic substances (PSs) are known to affect air and waters, while scarce attention has been paid to their occurrence in settled dusts although they can reach important concentrations there; moreover, no procedures have been developed for this specific purpose. In this study, a list of PSs (i.e., nicotine, cotinine, caffeine, cocaine, cannabinol, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol, amphetamine, heroin, and methadone) were characterized in dusts from Rome and Fiumicino international airport, Italy, and from Ouargla city, Algeria. The analytical procedure, based on ultra-sonic bath extraction, silica column chromatography, and GC-MSD analysis, provided good recovery, uncertainty, sensitivity, and lack of interferences for all substances except amphetamine. In NIST SRM-2585 house dust, nicotine, cotinine, caffeine, cocaine, and cannabinol accounted for ~5.95, 0.87, 4.17, 7.0, and 2.2 μg/g, respectively; on the other hand, methadone, tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol, and heroin (all <0.025 μg/g) were below the detection limit of the method. Two sites at the Fiumicino airport were affected by different loads of PSs (e.g., 0.76 and 2.80 ng/m2 of cocaine). In Ouargla, where dust was collected in a primary school and a dwelling, nicotine ranged from ~60 ± 50 to ~86 ± 89 ng/m2, cocaine was absent, and cannabinoids (0.35 ± 0.43 ng/m2 as total) were found only in the home. In Rome, nicotine, caffeine, cocaine, and cannabinol reached ca. 700, 1470, 0.82, and 2.4 ng/m2, respectively, in a smokers' home, but they were ca. 1300, 25,000, 670, and 1700 ng/m2 in a non-smoker home. In conclusion, all dusts revealed the presence of illicit PSs. Further studies are necessary to understand the links between the PS amounts in airborne particulates and in dusts, as well as the PS origin and fate in interiors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelo Cecinato
- National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Atmospheric Pollution Research (CNR-IIA), via Salaria, km 29.3, P.O. Box 10, 00015, Monterotondo, RM, Italy.
| | - Paola Romagnoli
- National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Atmospheric Pollution Research (CNR-IIA), via Salaria, km 29.3, P.O. Box 10, 00015, Monterotondo, RM, Italy
| | - Mattia Perilli
- National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Atmospheric Pollution Research (CNR-IIA), via Salaria, km 29.3, P.O. Box 10, 00015, Monterotondo, RM, Italy
| | - Catia Balducci
- National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Atmospheric Pollution Research (CNR-IIA), via Salaria, km 29.3, P.O. Box 10, 00015, Monterotondo, RM, Italy
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13
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Doran GS, Deans R, De Filippis C, Kostakis C, Howitt JA. The presence of licit and illicit drugs in police stations and their implications for workplace drug testing. Forensic Sci Int 2017; 278:125-136. [PMID: 28715674 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2017.06.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2017] [Revised: 06/28/2017] [Accepted: 06/29/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The presence of licit and illicit drug residues on surfaces was studied in 10 police stations and a central drug evidence store in New South Wales, Australia, with the results compared to similar surfaces in four public buildings (to establish a community baseline). The results of almost 850 workplace surface swabs were also compared to the outcome of drug analysis in urine and hair samples volunteered by police officers. Surfaces were swabbed with alcohol and the swabs were extracted and analysed by LC-MS/MS. Low level concentrations of the more commonly used drugs were detected at four public sites and one restricted access police office facility. Surface swabs taken in 10 city and country police stations yielded positive results for a broader suite of drugs than at background sites however 75-93% of the positive drug results detected in police stations were below 40ng, which is only slightly greater than the largest background result measured in the current study. This study indicates that contamination issues are more likely to be focussed in higher risk areas in police stations, such as counters and balances in charge areas, and surfaces within drug safes although front reception counters also returned surface contamination. All 64 urine samples collected in this study were negative, while only 2 of the 11 hair samples collected from donors resulted in trace concentrations for cocaine, but not its metabolite benzoylecgonine. Positive hair samples were only obtained from police donors in very high risk jobs, indicating that the exposure risk is low. Minor changes to the materials used as work surfaces, and some procedural changes in police stations and large evidence stores are suggested to decrease the likelihood of drugs contaminating work surfaces, thereby reducing the potential exposure of police officers to drugs in the workplace.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory S Doran
- Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation, Charles Sturt University, School of Agricultural and Wine Sciences, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia.
| | - Ralph Deans
- Drug & Alcohol Testing Unit, Professional Standards Command, New South Wales Police Force, Redfern, NSW 2016, Australia
| | - Carlo De Filippis
- Drug & Alcohol Testing Unit, Professional Standards Command, New South Wales Police Force, Redfern, NSW 2016, Australia
| | | | - Julia A Howitt
- Institute for Land, Water and Society, Charles Sturt University, School of Agricultural and Wine Sciences, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia
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Balducci C, Green DC, Romagnoli P, Perilli M, Johansson C, Panteliadis P, Cecinato A. Cocaine and cannabinoids in the atmosphere of Northern Europe cities, comparison with Southern Europe and wastewater analysis. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2016; 97:187-194. [PMID: 27665117 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2016.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2016] [Revised: 09/09/2016] [Accepted: 09/12/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
This study reports the first investigation of atmospheric illicit drug concentrations in Northern Europe using measurements of cocaine and cannabinoids in Amsterdam, London and Stockholm. Further, these measurements were compared to those made in Rome to explore the geographical and inter-city variability. Co-located measurements of atmospheric particulate mass and PAHs were used to help describe and interpret the illicit drug measurements with respect to atmospheric dispersion. Cocaine concentrations ranged from 0.03 to 0.14ng/m3 in Amsterdam, from 0.02 to 0.33ng/m3 in London and were below quantification limit (3pg/m3) in Stockholm. Cannabinol was the only cannabinoid molecule detected in the three cities. During this campaign, London reported the highest concentrations of cocaine and meaningful differences were detected between the urban background and city centre London sites. Mean cocaine concentrations measured in Amsterdam during March 2011 were also compared with those measured simultaneously in eight Italian cities. The cocaine concentration in Amsterdam was comparable to that measured at an urban background in Milan and at a densely populated site in Florence. Although correlating atmospheric concentrations directly with drug prevalence is not possible using current data, links between concentrations of cocaine and estimates of abuse prevalence assessed by the more routinely used wastewater analysis were also examined. A statistically significant correlation was found between the two sets of data (R2=0.66; p=0.00131). Results confirmed that meteorology, population rate and habits of consumption influence the atmospheric concentrations of drugs. If these confounding factors were better controlled for, the techniques described here could became an easy and cost effective tool to index the impact of cocaine abuse in the area; especially where local hot spots need to be identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catia Balducci
- National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Atmospheric Pollution Research (IIA), Monterotondo, RM, Italy.
| | - David C Green
- MRC PHE Centre for Environment and Health, King's College London, United Kingdom
| | - Paola Romagnoli
- National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Atmospheric Pollution Research (IIA), Monterotondo, RM, Italy
| | - Mattia Perilli
- National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Atmospheric Pollution Research (IIA), Monterotondo, RM, Italy
| | - Christer Johansson
- Stockholm University, Dept. of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry (ACES), Stockholm, Sweden; Environment and Health Administration, City of Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Pavlos Panteliadis
- Public Health Service (GGD), Dept. of Air Quality Research, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Angelo Cecinato
- National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Atmospheric Pollution Research (IIA), Monterotondo, RM, Italy
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Cecinato A, Balducci C, Perilli M. Illicit psychotropic substances in the air: The state-of-art. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 539:1-6. [PMID: 26360454 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.08.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2015] [Revised: 08/10/2015] [Accepted: 08/11/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The occurrence of psychotropic substances (PSs) in the air is known since long time. Recently, attention was paid to illicit PS, with most investigations undertaken in Italy and Spain. In general, collection of illicit substances was performed through aspirating airborne particulates onto filters; afterwards, gas chromatography or high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry were applied for the PS evaluation. Over twenty substances could be characterized simultaneously. Cocaine concentrations up to 17ngm(-3) were observed in Latin America, while this substance was absent (<0.003ngm(-3)) in Algiers (Algeria) and Pančevo (Serbia). Cannabinoids (comprising the psycho-active principle Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol [THC]) were high in the winter and very low in the summer (up to 6ngm(-3) and <0.1ngm(-3), respectively). Many other substances (e.g., heroin, ephedrine and drug by-products) occurred less frequently and at lesser extents (<20pgm(-3)). In Rome (Italy), investigations were carried out in interiors of dwellings, schools, an office and a coffee bar, all sites resulting affected by drugs. Besides, solid phase microextraction methods were applied to detect ketamine and methamphetamine in interiors. The PS concentrations depended on substance, physical-chemical contour, and internal or external type of locations. Air monitoring allows detecting the drug consumption or preparation, because illicit substances prevail in sites frequented by abusers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelo Cecinato
- National Research Council, Institute of Atmospheric Pollution Research (CNR-IIA), Via Salaria km 29.3, p. o. box 10, 00015 Monterotondo RM, Italy.
| | - Catia Balducci
- National Research Council, Institute of Atmospheric Pollution Research (CNR-IIA), Via Salaria km 29.3, p. o. box 10, 00015 Monterotondo RM, Italy.
| | - Mattia Perilli
- National Research Council, Institute of Atmospheric Pollution Research (CNR-IIA), Via Salaria km 29.3, p. o. box 10, 00015 Monterotondo RM, Italy.
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