Assessment of anthropogenic particles content in commercial beverages

Microplastic (MPs) pollution is a current global concern that is affecting all environmental compartments and food sources. In this work, anthropogenic particles occurrence (MPs and natural and synthetic cellulosic particles), have been determined in 73 beverages packed in different containers. Overall, 1521 anthropogenic particles were found, being the lowest occurrence in water samples (7.2 ± 10.1 items·L-1) while beer had the highest (95.5 ± 91.8 items·L-1). Colourless/white particles were the most detected followed by blue and red colours. The highest mean size was 783 ± 715 μm in soft drinks. Cellulosic, both natural and semisynthetic particles, were the composition mostly found but regarding plastic polymers, it was polyester. Phenoxy resin particles from the can coatings were also identified in all metal containers which indicates that leaching from the packaging may be happening. The total estimated daily intake were 0.077 and 0.159 items·kg-1 body weight (b.w.)·day-1 for children and adult population, respectively.

Analysis of microplastics in commercial vegetable edible oils from Italy and Spain

In this work, assessment of microplastics (MPs) in commercial vegetable edible oils from Italy and Spain, including extra-virgin olive oil, olive oil, sunflower oil, and mixed seed oil, has been conducted for the first time. The method was based on sample dilution with ethanol:n-hexane (1:3, v/v), homogenization, vacuum filtration on macroporous silicon filters with 5 μm pore diameter to collect MPs, and automatic µ-FTIR spectroscopy for MPs detection and characterization. In the analysis of oil samples, a mean MPs abundance of 1140 ± 350 MPs/L was found. Observed MPs were characterized, being most of them fragments (81.2 %), with particle sizes < 100 µm (77.5 %), and mainly composed of polyethylene (50.3 %) and polypropylene (28.7 %), among others. Statistical analysis revealed that there were not significant differences (p-value > 0.05) in the abundance of MPs between oil samples or types.

Determination of nitrofuran metabolites and nifurpirinol in animal tissues and eggs by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry validated according to Regulation (EU) 2021/808

In this work, an analytical method for the determination of eight non-allowed nitrofurans, including nifurpirinol and the metabolites of furazolidone, furaltadone, nitrofurantoin, nitrofurazone, nifursol, nitrovin, and nifuroxazide in animal tissues, including muscle (poultry, bovine, ovine, porcine, rabbit, and fish), kidney (bovine, ovine, porcine), and eggs, has been developed and validated according to Regulation (EU) 2021/808. The method was based on derivatization with 2-nitrobenzaldehyde in acid medium, followed by vortex-assisted liquid-liquid extraction and solid phase extraction for sample purification prior to ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Under selected conditions, the method was validated showing satisfactory relative matrix effects (CV ≤ 20 %), linearity (R2 ≥ 0.98), trueness (≤20 %, expressed as bias), accuracy (83-120 %), repeatability (1.7-19.9 %), reproducibility (1.9-25.7 %), specificity (blank signal ≤30 % at the LCL), and ruggedness. The decision limit for confirmation (CCα) for the target analytes ranged from 0.27 to 0.35 μg kg-1, all below the current reference point for action (RPA) of 0.5 μg kg-1 for the studied compounds. This validated method is currently accredited according to UNE-EN ISO/IEC 17025 by the Spanish National Accreditation Body (ENAC) to be implemented for official control analyses in the Public Health Laboratory of Valencia (Spain).

Risk assessment and predictors of the exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Spanish adults by urinary human biomonitoring

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are produced primarily during incomplete combustion of organic matter and in various industrial processes. They are widespread environmental pollutants that are of significant interest due to their potential toxicity. Humans can be exposed to PAHs through ingestion, inhalation and dermal contact. In the present study, ten urinary PAH biomarkers were determined in first-morning urine samples (n = 504) from the adult population (aged 18-65 years) residing in the Valencian Region of Spain. These samples were analysed using liquid-liquid extraction followed by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). All PAH biomarkers were quantified in more than 65 % of the urine samples. Naphthalene biomarkers, 1-hydroxynaphthalene (1OHNAP) and 2-hydroxynaphthalene (2OHNAP), exhibited the highest levels with geometric means (GMs) of 0.7 and 11.9 μg L-1, respectively. The 95th percentile of all PAH biomarkers ranged from 0.22 to 64.8 μg L-1. Estimated daily intakes (EDIs) for the analysed PAH families in the studied population ranged from 17 (pyrene) to 18581 (naphthalene) ng·kg-bw-1·day-1 (GM). Significant associations were observed between the quantified urinary metabolites of PAHs and smoking status, home location, annual household incomes, BMI, and the consumption of grilled food in the last 24 h. Hazard quotients (HQs) of naphthalene and consequently, hazard indexes (HIs) were above 1, especially for smokers. Therefore, potential health risks associated with PAH exposure in the target population could not be discarded.

Levels, patterns and risk assessment of PCDD/Fs and dl-PCBs through dietary exposure in the Valencian Region (Spain)

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) and dioxin like polychlorinated biphenyls (dl-PCBs) levels were measured in representative vegetable oils and animal origin foodstuffs collected in a Total Diet Study carried out in the Valencian Region (Spain). A total amount of 3,300 food samples were collected and grouped into 5 main food groups: vegetable oils, meat and meat products, eggs, milk and dairy products and fish and sea products. The samples were analysed using gas chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry (GC-HRMS). The food group which presented the highest concentration in wet weight (ww) for the sum of PCDD/Fs and dl-PCBs was fish and sea products (0.5 pg TEQ g-1 ww), whereas meat and meat products (0.6 pg TEQ g-1 lipid) showed the highest levels expressed in lipid terms. Occurrence data of PCDD/F and dl-PCBs were combined with consumption data to estimate the dietary exposure of adults (>15 years) and children (6-15 years). Finally, the estimated weekly intake (EWI) was calculated using a deterministic approach and considering the food consumption of the population, with fish and sea products being the main food group contributor. Likewise, considering the worst-case scenario (Upper Bound, UB), average EWI were 1.8 and 3.4 pg TEQ kg-1 body weight (bw) week-1 for adults and children, respectively. For children, the average EWI was almost twice above the tolerable weekly intake (TWI) of 2 pg TEQ kg-1 bw week-1 set by EFSA in 2018. In terms of risk characterisation, the overall obtained results showed that 19 % of adults and 43 % of children may exceed the TWI when using UB.

Determinants of exposure to acrylamide in European children and adults based on urinary biomarkers: results from the "European Human Biomonitoring Initiative" HBM4EU participating studies

Little is known about exposure determinants of acrylamide (AA), a genotoxic food-processing contaminant, in Europe. We assessed determinants of AA exposure, measured by urinary mercapturic acids of AA (AAMA) and glycidamide (GAMA), its main metabolite, in 3157 children/adolescents and 1297 adults in the European Human Biomonitoring Initiative. Harmonized individual-level questionnaires data and quality assured measurements of AAMA and GAMA (urine collection: 2014-2021), the short-term validated biomarkers of AA exposure, were obtained from four studies (Italy, France, Germany, and Norway) in children/adolescents (age range: 3-18 years) and six studies (Portugal, Spain, France, Germany, Luxembourg, and Iceland) in adults (age range: 20-45 years). Multivariable-adjusted pooled quantile regressions were employed to assess median differences (β coefficients) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) in AAMA and GAMA (µg/g creatinine) in relation to exposure determinants. Southern European studies had higher AAMA than Northern studies. In children/adolescents, we observed significant lower AA associated with high socioeconomic status (AAMA:β =  - 9.1 µg/g creatinine, 95% CI - 15.8, - 2.4; GAMA: β =  - 3.4 µg/g creatinine, 95% CI - 4.7, - 2.2), living in rural areas (AAMA:β =  - 4.7 µg/g creatinine, 95% CI - 8.6, - 0.8; GAMA:β =  - 1.1 µg/g creatinine, 95% CI - 1.9, - 0.4) and increasing age (AAMA:β =  - 1.9 µg/g creatinine, 95% CI - 2.4, - 1.4; GAMA:β =  - 0.7 µg/g creatinine, 95% CI - 0.8, - 0.6). In adults, higher AAMA was also associated with high consumption of fried potatoes whereas lower AAMA was associated with higher body-mass-index. Based on this large-scale study, several potential determinants of AA exposure were identified in children/adolescents and adults in European countries.

Biomarkers of exposure in urine of active smokers, non-smokers, and vapers

The exposure to smoking related products has been evaluated through urine illness risk marker determination through the analysis of urine samples of smokers and vapers. Biomarkers and their metabolites such as N-acetyl-S-(2-cyanoethyl)-L-cysteine (CEMA), N-acetyl-S-(3,4-dihydroxybutyl)-L-cysteine (DHBMA), N-acetyl-S-[1-(hydroxymethyl)-2-propen-1-yl)-L-cysteine (MHBMA), N-acetyl-S-(3-hydroxypropyl)-L-cysteine (3HPMA), 2R-N-acetyl-S-(4-hydroxybutan-2-yl)-L-cysteine (HMPMA), and N-acetyl-S-(3-carboxy-2-propyl)-L-cysteine (CMEMA) together with nicotine and cotinine were identified and quantified by LC-HRMS and LC-MS/MS, and data found normalized to the creatinine level. One hundred two urine samples were collected from smokers, non-smokers, and vapers, spanning an age range from 16 to 79 years. Results obtained showed that CEMA was only detected in urine samples from smokers and MHBMA was in the same order of magnitude in all the urine samples analyzed. HMPMA was found in the urine of vapers at the same order of concentration as in non-smokers. 3HPMA in vapers was lower than in the urine of smokers, presenting an intermediate situation between smokers and non-smokers. On the other hand, DHBMA in vapers can reach similar values to those found for smokers, while CMEMA shows concentrations in the urine of vapers higher than in the case of non-smokers and traditional smokers, requiring new research to link this metabolite to the use of electronic cigarettes and possible alternative metabolomic routes. In general, this study seems to verify that traditional smoking practice constitutes a major source of carcinogenic chemicals compared with substitutive practices, although those practices are not free of potential harm.

Non-target screening and human risk assessment for adult and child populations of semi-volatile organic compounds in residential indoor dust in Spain

In this work, an analytical strategy based on non-target screening of semi-volatile organic compounds and subsequent risk assessment for adult and child populations has been conducted for the first time in household indoor dust samples in Spain. The methodology was based on a microwave-assisted extraction followed by gas chromatography coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry determination, using a hybrid quadrupole-orbitrap analyzer. The procedure was applied to 19 residential indoor dust samples, collected in different Spanish regions (namely Galicia, La Rioja, Catalunya, the Balearic Islands, and the Valencian Region). From the generated data, 4067 features were obtained, of which 474 compounds were tentatively identified with a high level of identification confidence (probable structure by library spectrum match or confirmed by reference standard), using a restrictive set of identification criteria. Most of the identified chemicals were natural products, metabolites, additives, and substances with industrial applications in the field of foods, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and plastics. Finally, risk assessment was carried out by applying the threshold of toxicological concern approach, showing that risk to adult and child populations associated with the presence of the identified substances in the indoor dust was not expected, although the existence of indoor environments with conditions of potential risk cannot be discarded under a worst-case scenario approach.

Untargeted analysis and tentative identification of unknown substances in human tears by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry: Pilot study

In this work, a new approach for the identification of unknown compounds in human tears has been developed and validated using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS) linked to an intelligent data acquisition mode (AcquireX DS-dd-MS2) coupled to an automated data processing software (Compound Discoverer™ 3.2). As a pilot research study, four human tear samples from volunteers were analyzed. Data were acquired in both positive and negative ionization modes and exact mass, isotope pattern, and MS2 spectra match were used for the tentative identification. Following this approach, 58 substances were identified, 47 in positive mode and 11 in negative mode, with an estimated concentration ranging from 0.1 to 9000 ng mL-1. Most of them were amino acids, hormones, metabolites, and pharmaceuticals. In order to validate the proposed method, the system suitability was evaluated and 29 commercial analytical standards of the tentatively identified substances were analyzed, of which 28 were confirmed obtaining a high identification accuracy (96.6 %). These results confirm that the screening tool presented in this work can facilitate the discovery of new metabolites, novel potential biomarkers, and substances to which the person is exposed, such as pollutants.

Development of a Methodology for Determination of Dioxins and Dioxin-like PCBs in Meconium by Gas Chromatography Coupled to High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry (GC-HRMS)

An analytical strategy was applied to investigate polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (dl-PCBs) in newborn meconium samples. The methodology includes extraction by selective pressurized liquid extraction (SPLE), followed by a clean-up multicolumn step. The samples were injected by gas chromatography coupled to a high-resolution mass spectrometer (GC-HRMS). The surrogate recoveries ranged from 68% to 95%, and the average of the limit of quantification (LOQ) ranged from 0.03 to 0.08 pg g^-1 wet weight (ww) for PCDD/Fs and 0.2 to 0.88 pg g^-1 ww for dl-PCBs. The strategy was applied to 10 samples collected in Valencia (Spain) in 2022. In total, 18 out of 29 analysed congeners were detected in at least one sample, whereas 6 of them were detected in all the samples (OCDD, PCB-123, PCB-118, PCB-105, PCB-167, and PCB-156). The levels for the sum of the 17 congeners of PCDD/Fs and 12 congeners of dl-PCBs in the upper-bound (UB), expressed as picograms of toxic equivalency quantity (TEQ) per gram of ww, ranged from 0.19 to 0.31 pg TEQ g^-1 ww.

Assessment of acrylamide exposure in Spain by human biomonitoring: Risk and predictors of exposure

Acrylamide (AA), a chemical compound currently classified as "reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen", is formed through the Maillard reaction in processed carbohydrate-rich foods and is also present in tobacco smoke. The primary sources of AA exposure in the general population are dietary intake and inhalation. Within a 24-h period, humans eliminate approximately 50% of AA in the urine, predominantly in the form of mercapturic acid conjugates such as N-acetyl-S-(2-carbamoylethyl)-L-cysteine (AAMA), N-acetyl-S-(2-carbamoyl-2- hydroxyethyl)-L-cysteine (GAMA3), and N-acetyl-3-[(3-amino-3-oxopropyl)sulfinyl]-L-alanine (AAMA-Sul). These metabolites serve as short-term biomarkers for AA exposure in human biomonitoring studies. In this study, we analysed first-morning urine samples from the adult population (aged 18-65 years) residing in the Valencian Region, Spain, (n = 505). AAMA, GAMA-3 and AAMA-Sul were quantified in 100% of the analysed samples, with geometric means (GM) of 84, 11 and 26 μg L^-1, respectively, while the estimated daily intake of AA in the studied population ranged from 1.33 to 2.13 μg·kg-bw^-1·day^-1 (GM). Statistical analysis of the data indicated that the most significant predictors of AA exposure were smoking and the amount of potato fried products and, biscuits and pastries consumed last 24 h. Based on risk assessment approaches conducted, the findings suggest that exposure to AA could pose a potential health risk. Therefore, it is crucial to closely monitor and continuously evaluate AA exposure to ensure the well-being of the population.

Exposure and Risk Assessment to Airborne dl-PCBs and Dioxins in the Population Living in the Neighborhood of a Cement Plant: A Pilot Study in the Valencian Region of Spain

Emissions from cement manufacturing facilities may increase health risks in nearby populations. For this reason, dioxin-like PCB (dl-PCB), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin (PCDD), and polychlorinated dibenzofuran (PCDF) concentrations in PM₁₀ samples were assessed in the vicinity of a cement manufacturing plant located in the Valencian Region (eastern Spain). The total concentrations of the sum of dl-PCBs, PCDDs, and PCDFs ranged between 1.85 and 42.53 fg TEQ/m³ at the assessed stations. The average daily inhalation dose (DID) for the sum in adults ranged from 8.93 · 10^-4 to 3.75 · 10^-3 pg WHO TEQ kg^-1 b.w. d^-1, and, for children, the DID ranged from 2.01 · 10^-3 to 8.44 · 10^-3 pg WHO TEQ kg^-1 b.w. d^-1. Risk assessment for adults and children was performed using both daily and chronic exposure. The hazard quotient (HQ) was calculated considering 0.025 pg WHO TEQ kg^-1 b.w. d^-1 to be the acceptable maximum permitted inhalation exposure. The HQ obtained was slightly higher than 1 for PCDD/Fs at one of the stations (Chiva), indicating a possible health risk for the population under study due to inhalation exposure. In the case of chronic exposure, cancer risk (>10^-6) was observed for some samples in one of the assessed sampling sites (Chiva).

Determination of 21 per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances in paper- and cardboard-based food contact materials by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry

In this work, a new analytical method was developed and validated for the determination of the total content of 21 per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in paper- and cardboard-based food contact materials (FCMs). This method is based on green ultrasound-assisted lixiviation followed by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS). The method was validated in various paper- and cardboard-based FCMs, showing good linearity (R² ≥ 0.99), limits of quantification (1.7-10 μg kg^-1), accuracy (74-115%), and precision (RSD < 20%). The eco-friendly characteristics of the proposed analytical method were assessed according to the analytical eco-scale, demonstrating that it can be considered an excellent green analytical method (EcoScale score > 75). Finally, 16 field samples of paper- and cardboard-based FCMs, including pizza boxes, popcorn boxes, paper bags and cardboard boxes for potato fries, ice cream tubs, pastry trays, and cardboard-based packaging for cooked Spanish omelets, fresh grapes, frozen fish, and salads were analyzed, showing that they comply with the current European regulations regarding the studied PFASs. The developed method is currently accredited according to UNE-EN ISO/IEC 17025 by the Spanish National Accreditation Body (ENAC) to be implemented for official control analysis of FCMs in the Public Health Laboratory of Valencia, Generalitat Valenciana (Valencia, Spain).

Risk assessment of the exposure of Spanish children to acrylamide using human biomonitoring

Acrylamide (AA) is an organic contaminant that naturally forms in starchy foods during high-temperature cooking under low-moisture conditions. It is mainly produced from the sugars and amino acids present in food by the Maillard reaction. When humans are exposed to AA, AA is eliminated in the urine as mercapturic acid conjugates, primarily including N-acetyl-S-(2-carbamoylethyl)-L-cysteine (AAMA), N-acetyl-S-(2-carbamoyl-2-hydroxyethyl)-L-cysteine (GAMA3), and N-acetyl-3-[(3-amino-3-oxopropyl)sulfinyl]-L-alanine (AAMA-Sul), which are used as exposure biomarkers of AA in human biomonitoring studies. Although the carcinogenic effects of AA on humans have not been demonstrated yet, some studies have shown that AA may negatively affect children's health. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the exposure of Spanish children (n = 612) to AA. For this purpose, the levels of AAMA, AAMA-Sul, and GAMA3 in first-morning urine samples were analyzed by "dilute and shoot" and liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. The three metabolites were detected in all the children involved in this study in the following order (geometric mean (GM)): AAMA (79 ng ml^-1) > AAMA-Sul (28 ng ml^-1) > GAMA3 (18 ng ml^-1). Statistical analysis suggested that the intake of fried potato products and biscuits could be associated with higher levels of AA metabolites in urine. Estimated daily intakes of AA in the children under study were in the range of 1.2-1.5 μg AA·kg-body weight^-1·day^-1 (GM). Risk assessment calculations indicate that the health risk of AA exposure cannot be overlooked and the exposure of Spanish children to AA should be closely monitored.

Identification of Unknown Substances in Ambient Air (PM10), Profiles and Differences between Rural, Urban and Industrial Areas

A fast and automated strategy has been developed for identifying unknown substances in the atmosphere (concretely, in the particulate matter, PM₁₀) using LC-HRMS (MS³). A total of 15 samples were collected in three different areas (rural, urban and industrial). A sampling flow rate of 30 m³ h⁻¹ was applied for 24 h, sampling a total volume of around 720 m³. A total of 49 compounds were tentatively identified using very restrictive criteria regarding exact mass, retention time, isotopic profile and both MS² and MS³ spectra. Pesticides, pharmaceutical active compounds, drugs, plasticizers and metabolites were the most identified compounds. To verify whether the developed methodology was suitable, 11 substances were checked with their analytical standards and all of them were confirmed. Different profiles for industrial, rural and urban areas were examined. The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) model allowed us to separate the obtained data of the three assessed area. When the profiles obtained in the three evaluated areas were compared using a Volcano plot (the rural area was taken as reference), 11 compounds were confirmed as being discriminant: three of them (3-hydroxy-2-methylpyridine, 3-methyladenine and nicotine) were more likely to be found in industrial sites; ten compounds (3-hydroxy-2-methylpyridine, 3-methyladenine, azoxystrobin, cocaine, cotinine, ethoprophos, imidacloprid, metalaxyl-M, nicotine and pyrimethanil) were more probable in the case of urban sites; finally, triisopropanolamine was more likely to be detected in rural locations.

Exposure to non-persistent pesticides in the Spanish population using biomonitoring: A review

Although Spain does not have a regular national human biomonitoring program yet, different research groups are active in evaluating the exposure of children and adults to chemicals. In the last seven years, several studies in Spain have evaluated the internal exposure of the population to currently used pesticides. The present review analyzes the scope of these studies, the employed analytical methods and the main results of the exposure and risk, mainly for children and mothers. The frequency of exposure to biomarkers of exposure to organophosphate pesticides is high. Some non-specific dialkyl phosphate metabolites (DAPs), such as the diethyl phosphate (DEP), present Detection Frequencies (DFs) in the range of 65-92% in various studies. Also, the specific biomarker of the chlorpyrifos (3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol, TCPy), achieves Detection Frequencies between 74% and 100% in many studies. For pyrethroids, the metabolite 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (PBA) is present, in general, in more than the 65% of the studied samples. Highly polar herbicides were only assessed in one study and both glyphosate and its metabolite aminomethylphosphonic acid showed Detection Frequencies around 60%. However, putting the biomonitoring data in a risk assessment context, the mean Hazard Quotient (HQ), used as a metric for the individual risk, ranges from 0.0006 (glyphosate) to 0.93 in farm workers (parathion), which means that is unlike that the exposure poses a health concern (HQ < 1).

Exposure assessment of Spanish lactating mothers to acrylamide via human biomonitoring

Acrylamide (AA) is an organic compound classified as "Probably carcinogenic to humans" (Group 2 A) that can be found principally in processed carbohydrate-rich foods and tobacco smoke. In humans, after exposure, AA is rapidly metabolized and excreted in urine, predominantly as N-acetyl-S-(2-carbamoylethyl)-l-cysteine (AAMA), N-acetyl-S-(2-carbamoyl-2-hydroxyethyl)-l-cysteine (GAMA3) and N-Acetyl-3-[(3-amino-3-oxopropyl)sulfinyl]-L-alanine (AAMA-Sul), which can be used as short-term biomarkers of exposure to AA. In this study, the presence of AA metabolites in urine samples of lactating mothers living in Spain (n = 114) was analyzed by "dilute and shoot" and liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). All urinary metabolites were detected in 100% of the analyzed samples, with geometric means of 70, 33 and 15 ng ml^-1, for AAMA, AAMA-Sul and GAMA3, respectively. The consumption of coffee, bread and precooked food products were found to be significant predictors of internal exposure to AA. An estimated daily intake (EDI) of AA based on its urinary metabolites was calculated, obtaining mean values between 1.2 and 1.9 μg AA·kg bw^-1·day^-1 in the target population. The risk assessment was evaluated using both reverse and forward dosimetry, showing an average margin of exposure (MOE) of 349 and a hazard quotient (HQ) of 5.5. Therefore, AA exposure should be considered a medium priority for risk assessment follow-up in the Spanish population, since a health concern with respect to non-neoplastic toxicity could not be discarded.

Biomonitoring of glyphosate and AMPA in the urine of Spanish lactating mothers

The objectives of this study were to evaluate the urinary levels of Glyphosate (Gly) and its metabolite aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) in Spanish breastfeeding mothers (n = 97), to identify the main predictors of exposure and to perform a risk assessment. Urine samples were analyzed using a method based on solid phase extraction and liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) determination. The developed method showed limits of quantification of 0.1 μg/L for both analytes. The detection frequencies (DFs) were 54% for Gly and 60% for AMPA, with geometric means (GMs) of 0.12 μg/L and 0.14 μg/L, respectively. In the statistical analysis, no relationship was found between the urinary levels of Gly and AMPA. Multiple regression analysis showed a significant relationship between the intake of eggs and fruits and Gly levels in urine. Estimated daily intakes (EDIs), hazard quotients (HQs), and a hazard index (HI) were calculated to analyze the obtained data from a health risk perspective. The GMs of the EDIs were 0.31 and 0.37 μg/kg of body weight (BW)/day for Gly and AMPA, respectively. The HQs were calculated considering 0.5 mg/kg BW/day as an acceptable daily intake (ADI), which EFSA has established as a health-based reference value for both analytes. The values obtained were lower than 1, and thus, low health risk due to Gly and AMPA exposure was expected for the population under study.

Health Risk Assessment of Exposure to 15 Essential and Toxic Elements in Spanish Women of Reproductive Age: A Case Study

This case study investigates the exposure of 119 Spanish women of reproductive age to 5 essential (Co, Cu, Mn, V, Zn) and 10 toxic (Ba, Be, Cs, Ni, Pb, Pt, Sb, Th, Al, U) elements and assesses their risk. The essential elements (Co, Cu, Mn, V, and Zn) showed average concentrations (GM: geometric mean) of 0.8, 35, 0.5, 0.2, and 347 μg/L, respectively. Five of the toxic elements (Ba, Cs, Ni, Al, U) exhibited detection frequencies of 100%. The GM concentrations of the novel toxic elements were 12 μg/L (Al), 0.01 μg/L (Pt), 0.02 μg/L (U), 0.12 μg/L (Th), 0.009 μg/L (Be) and 4 μg/L (Cs). The urine analysis was combined with a survey to assess any variations between subgroups and potential predictors of exposure to elements in the female population. Significant differences were obtained between the rural and urban areas studied for the toxic element Cs, with higher levels found in mothers living in urban areas. In relation to diet, statistically significantly higher levels of essential (Cu) and toxic (Ba) elements were detected in women with a high consumption of fish, while mothers who consumed a large quantity of legumes presented higher levels of the toxic element Ni (p = 0.0134). In a risk-assessment context, hazard quotients (HQs) greater than 1 were only observed for the essential elements Zn and Cu in P95. No deficiency was found regarding the only essential element for which a biomonitoring equivalent for nutritional deficit is available (Zn). For the less-studied toxic elements (Al, Pt, U, Th, Be, and Cs), HQs were lower than 1, and thus, the health risk due to exposure to these elements is expected to be low for the female population under study.

A Fast and Automated Strategy for the Identification and Risk Assessment of Unknown Substances (IAS/NIAS) in Plastic Food Contact Materials by GC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS: Recycled LDPE as a Proof-of-Concept

A fast and automated approach has been developed for the tentative identification and risk assessment of unknown substances in plastic food contact materials (FCM) by GC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS. The proposed approach combines GC-HRMS full scan data acquisition coupled to Compound Discoverer™ 3.2 software for automated data processing and compound identification. To perform the tentative identification of the detected features, a restrictive set of identification criteria was used, including matching with the NIST Mass Spectral Library, exact mass of annotated fragments, and retention index calculation. After the tentative identification, a risk assessment of the identified substances was performed by using the threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) approach. This strategy has been applied to recycled low-density polyethylene (LDPE), which could be used as FCM, as a proof-of-concept demonstration. In the analyzed sample, 374 features were detected, of which 83 were tentatively identified after examination of the identification criteria. Most of these were additives, such as plasticizers, used in a wide variety of plastic applications, oligomers of LDPE, and substances with chemical, industrial, or cosmetic applications. The risk assessment was performed and, according to the TTC approach, the obtained results showed that there was no risk associated with the release of the identified substances. However, complementary studies related to the toxicity of the unidentified substances and the potential mixture toxicity (cocktail effects) should be conducted in parallel using bioassays.

Indoor Air Quality including Respiratory Viruses

The detection of SARS-CoV-2 in indoor environments is a cause of increasing concern. In this study, three sampling methodologies have been used in order to collect SARS-CoV-2 and 17 other respiratory viruses in indoor air, combined with a new analytical process to analyze respiratory viruses. Different areas of an ophthalmological hospital were investigated for the presence of these airborne viruses. Moreover, indoor air quality (IAQ) parameters (carbon dioxide, CO₂; carbon monoxide, CO; nitrogen dioxide, NO₂; volatile organic compounds, VOCs; formaldehyde, HCHO; and particulate matter, PM) have been examined to study the relationship between IAQ and airborne viruses. All indoor air and surface samples assessed were found to be negative for SARS-CoV-2. Nevertheless, another airborne respiratory virus (HRV/ENV) was detected, illustrating that the methodology set out here is a suitable one. Regarding the results for the IAQ, chemical parameters studied in the hall and waiting room of the hospital presented acceptable values. However, in the doctor's consultation room VOCs and HCHO show some instantaneous levels higher than the recommended guide values. The methodological approach described in this paper, integrating conventional IAQ and the assessment of bioaerosols, can be used in research and control programs aimed at promoting a healthy indoor environment.

Biomonitoring of Phthalates, Bisphenols and Parabens in Children: Exposure, Predictors and Risk Assessment

Exposure to emerging contaminants, such as phthalates, bisphenols and parabens in children has been associated with possible neurodevelopment and endocrine alterations. In the present study, the biomonitoring of biomarkers in children (5–12 years old) from the Valencia Region (Spain) have been implemented using urines from the BIOVAL program. More than 75% of the children studied (n = 562) were internally exposed (>LOQ) to bisphenols and parabens, and the whole population assessed (n = 557) were exposed to at least one phthalate. The geometric means (GM) of the concentrations of bisphenol A, methyl paraben and propyl paraben were 0.9, 1.4 and 0.39 ng/mL, respectively. Regarding phthalates, monoethyl phthalate GM was 55.0 ng/mL and diethyl hexyl phthalate (as the sum of five metabolites) GM was 60.6 ng/mL. Despite the studied population being widely exposed, the detection frequencies and concentrations were in general lower than in previous studies involving children in Spain and in other countries in recent years. Furthermore, the risk assessment study concluded that the internal exposure to phthalates, bisphenols and parabens is lower than the guidance values established, and, therefore, a health risk derived from the exposure to these compounds in the studied population is not expected.

Liquid chromatography-Orbitrap Tribrid high-resolution mass spectrometry using data dependent-tandem mass spectrometry with triple stage fragmentation as a screening tool to perform identification and risk assessment of unknown substances in food contact epoxy resin

A new, fast, and automatic approach has been applied for the tentative identification of unknown substances released by food contact epoxy resin after performing a migration test with food simulant. This approach combines intelligent data acquisition with AcquireX linked to liquid chromatography-Orbitrap Tribrid high-resolution mass spectrometry using data dependent-tandem mass spectrometry with triple stage fragmentation coupled to Compound Discoverer™ software for automated data processing and compound identification. The identification of the observed features was performed using a set of identification criteria, including exact mass, isotope pattern, tandem mass spectrometry spectra match, and retention time. With these criteria, 263 substances were tentatively identified. Most of the identified compounds were additives, such as plasticisers, stabilizers, and antioxidants, used in different plastic applications. However, metabolites, biological constituents with pharmacological activity, and other substances with industrial applications were also detected. In order to perform a risk assessment of the food contact epoxy resin, threshold of toxicological concern approach was applied for the identified compounds. There was not risk associated with the migration of the identified substances.

Exposure and Risk Assessment of Hg, Cd, As, Tl, Se, and Mo in Women of Reproductive Age Using Urinary Biomonitoring

The present study analyzed the exposure and risk assessment of 4 toxic (Hg, Cd, As, Tl) and 2 essential (Se, Mo) elements in 119 Spanish women of reproductive age. The focus was on the elements for which risk-based benchmark, biomonitoring equivalents, or health-related human biomonitoring values have already been established. All elements presented frequencies of detection of 100% (greater than the limit of detection), except for Cd (99%). The 95th percentile concentrations were, for the toxic metals, 358.37 µg/L (total As), 1.10 µg/L (Cd), 0.41 µg/L (Tl), and 3.03 µg/L (total Hg) and, for the essential elements, 68.95 µg/L (total Se) and 154.67 (Mo). We examined sociodemographic factors and dietary habits of women as predictors of urinary metal concentrations. Arsenic was positively associated with fish, shellfish, and canned fish consumption, whereas Mo was found to be associated with the consumption of cereals and pastry products. Maternal urine levels of As were negatively correlated with gestational age. In a risk-assessment context, hazard quotients (HQs) using the 95th percentile ranged from 0.08 (Tl) to 15.1 (urinary speciated As), with Cd presenting an HQ of 1.1 (95th percentile). None of the essential metals presented concentrations higher than their upper intake level; however, 3% of the mothers showed lower levels of Se than the estimated average requirement (EAR) biomonitoring equivalent, and 20% of the mothers were found to have lower levels of Mo than the EAR biomonitoring equivalent, suggesting a nutritionally inadequate diet. Environ Toxicol Chem 2021;40:1477-1490. © 2021 SETAC.

Dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs in the ambient air of the Valencian Region (Spain): Levels, human exposure, and risk assessment

Dioxins (polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDD) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDF), as well as dioxin-like PCBs (dl-PCBs), are listed as persistent organic pollutants in the Stockholm Convention. In this study, we measured their concentrations in the particulate phase (PM10) of the ambient air in seven monitoring stations of the Valencian Community (Spain). A total of 82 samples were collected from different sampling sites: four industrial, two urban, and one remote, from February to December 2019. The total concentrations of the sum of PCDD, PCDF, and dl-PCBs ranged from 2.90 fg TEQ/m³ to 317.98 fg TEQ/m³. Risk assessment for adults and children was performed using both daily and chronic exposure. Each station showed its specific dioxin profile, related to the main productive activities in each area. The daily inhalation dose (DID) in adults and children was lower than the tolerable daily intake (TDI) of 1-4 pg WHO TEQ kg^-1 b.w. d^-1 for dioxins. In the case of chronic exposure, the cancer risk for dioxins and dl-PCBs was estimated at values ranging from 5.27 E-07 to 5.52 E-05. The cancer risk for dioxins and PCBs estimated at the 95th percentile was higher than 1.0 E-06 in all of the industrial and urban areas.

Biomonitoring of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (dl-PCBs) in human milk: Exposure and risk assessment for lactating mothers and breastfed children from Spain

The main objective of the present research was to evaluate the levels of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (dl-PCBs) in the human milk of Spanish lactating women who participated in the BETTERMILK project so that exposure and risk could be assessed for these mothers and their breastfed children. The total ∑PCDD/Fs + dl-PCBs TEQ₂₀₀₅ concentrations in the upper-bound (UB) ranged from 1.29 to 13.48 pgTEQ₂₀₀₅ g^-1 lipid. The estimated geometric mean level for the sum of PCDD/F and dl-PCBs was 4.10 and 4.42 pgTEQ₂₀₀₅ g^-1 lipid, lower-bound (LB) and UB respectively and were below the reference level reported by EFSA, which is associated with adverse effects in boys of 9 years and related to lactating mothers' exposure values of the tolerable weekly intake (TWI) of around 2 pgTEQ₂₀₀₅ kg^-1 bw per week. Nevertheless, it was exceeded when the 95th percentile (8.31 pgTEQ₂₀₀₅ g^-1 lipid, as UB) was considered. Results from a multiple regression analysis showed that age has a significant impact on milk ∑PCDD/Fs + dl-PCBs levels, with higher concentrations observed in the milk from older mothers.

Risk assessment of exposure to phthalates in breastfeeding women using human biomonitoring

In this study, we assessed the presence of 14 phthalate metabolites in the urine of 104 lactating mothers from Valencia (Spain) who took part in the human biomonitoring project BETTERMILK. Nine of the metabolites studied showed detection frequencies >80%, whereas the rest of the metabolites presented low detection frequencies (<5%). The concentrations ranged from <LoQ to 1291 ng/mL with monoethyl phthalate showing the highest concentration, with a geometric mean of 34.90 ng/mL. In general, the phthalate metabolite levels quantified in the present study were lower than the urinary levels found in previous studies that involved lactating mothers. The consumption of packaged juices and the frequency of deodorant usage were predictors of some phthalate metabolite levels in urine. In order to put the biomonitoring data in a risk assessment context, guide values for the different phthalates were used and the respective hazard quotients were calculated, which ranged from 0.0036 (benzylbutyl phthalate) to 0.49 (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate) at the 95th percentile level. Consequently, no risk was appreciated in the studied population.

Biomonitoring of bisphenols A, F, S and parabens in urine of breastfeeding mothers: Exposure and risk assessment

In the present study we used human biomonitoring to assess the internal exposure and the risk to four parabens and three bisphenols in 103 Spanish breastfeeding mothers participating in the BETTERMIILK project. Urinary methylparaben (MP), ethylparaben (EP), propylparaben (PP) and butylparaben (BP) presented detection frequencies ranging from 12% (BP) to 92% (MP), while bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol F (BPF) and bisphenol S (BPS) were detected in 76% (BPA) and 20% (BPF, BPS) of the mothers. Average paraben concentrations (geometric mean) ranged from 0.021 ng mL^-1 (BP) to 17.7 ng mL^-1 (MP), whereas bisphenols had geometric means concentrations from 0.042 ng mL^-1 (BPF) to 0.927 ng mL^-1 (BPA). Except for BPA, the estimated daily intakes (EDI) were calculated in order to interpret urinary levels in a risk assessment context. The obtained EDIs ranged from 0.00042 mg/kg/day for PP to 0.0434 mg/kg/day for MP and EP. A hazard quotient (HQ) was calculated for BPA (0.0049) and parabens (0.001-0.004), showing no risk in the studied population. Sociodemographic characteristics, food consumption, and usage patterns of personal care products (PCPs) were investigated as possible determinants of exposure. Use of makeup and skincare products were associated with higher concentrations of MP and PP, respectively. Regarding dietary habits, MP was also associated with the consumption of packaged and bakery products.

Legacy and current-use pesticides (CUPs) in the atmosphere of a rural area in central Chile, using passive air samplers

Polyurethane foam (PUF) disks in passive air samplers (PAS) and passive dry deposition (Pas-DD) collectors were used to assess the presence of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and current-use pesticides (CUPs) in a rural area of central Chile (Peumo, VI Region). The samplers were exposed from September 2015 (spring) to March 2016 (summer), with the PUFs collected at intervals of 30, 60, and 90 days. Both samplers (PUF-PAS and Pas-DD) captured more than one pesticide per sampling period. Chlorpyrifos-ethyl and pyrimethanil presented the highest air concentration with PUF-PAS (3470.2 ng m^-3 for chlorpyrifos-ethyl and 52.8 ng m^-3 for pyrimethanil). The deposited amount of chlorpyrifos-ethyl, pyrimethanil, penconazole, diazinon and malathion in some Pas-DD, was superior to amount of pesticides captured by PUF-PAS. Differences between the amount deposited and captured by each sampler should be studied in greater detail, because wind speed, atmospheric particulate matter size and sampler design are some fundamental variables in this process. These results provide preliminary information on the presence of current-use pesticides in the atmosphere of Peumo, VI Region, serving as a foundation for future environmental monitoring programs.

Influence of diet in urinary levels of metals in a biomonitoring study of a child population of the Valencian region (Spain)

Pollution by trace elements and its possible effect on organisms has become a worldwide concern due to the increasing presence of trace elements in the environment and especially in the food chain. Exposure to chemicals has traditionally been measured using environmental samples, however, human biomonitoring brings a different perspective, in which all sources and exposure pathways are integrated. The objective of this paper is to discern the possible relationship between children's diet and the metals found in children urine. With this aim in mind, a total of 120 voluntaries participated in a diet survey carried out in a school-aged population (age 6-11) from the Valencian region. In addition, twenty trace elements were analysed in children urine (arsenic, antimony, barium, beryllium, caesium, cadmium, cobalt, copper, lead, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, nickel, platinum, selenium, thallium, thorium, uranium, vanadium and zinc). Results permitted to compare metal levels in urine with metal levels of other biomonitoring studies to conclude that values, including ours, were similar in most studies. On the other hand, children who ate more vegetables had the highest values in cadmium, copper, molybdenum, antimony, thallium, vanadium, and zinc, while those who ate more fish reached higher values in mercury. Finally, children who ate more cereals and baked products had higher values in total arsenic.

Human exposure and risk assessment to airborne pesticides in a rural French community

Outdoor air samples collected during the pesticide agricultural application period (spring and summer) from a rural community in the Centre Region (France) were analyzed to investigate temporal variation of atmospheric pesticide levels (2006-2013) and human inhalation exposure in adults, children and infants. The most frequently detected pesticides were herbicides (trifluralin, pendimethalin), fungicides (chlorothalonil) and insecticides (lindane and α-endosulfan). The three currently-used pesticides most frequently detected presented concentrations ranging from 0.18 to 1128.38ngm^-3; 0.13 to 117.32ngm^-3 and 0.16 to 25.80ngm^-3 for chlorothalonil, pendimethalin and trifluralin, respectively. The estimated chronic inhalation risk, expressed as Hazard Quotient (HQ), for adults, children and infants, was <1 for all measured pesticides. Likewise, the cumulative exposure for detected organophosphorus and chloroacetamide pesticides, was estimated using the Relative Potency Factor (RPF) and Hazard Index (HI) as metrics, which was indicated that no risk was observed. The cancer risk classified as likely or possibly carcinogen was estimated to be <8.93 E-05 in infants, for the detected pesticides.

Risk assessment of airborne pesticides in a Mediterranean region of Spain

A risk assessment strategy based on the quantitative target analysis and semi-quantitative retrospective screening determination of pesticides in PM10 has been developed. The proposed methodology was applied to 345 real samples from nine stations of a Mediterranean area in Spain, and the risk was assessed for adult, children and infants. Forty pesticides were detected with average concentrations ranging from 8 to 30,000pgm^-3. Each station showed its specific pesticide profile, which is linked to the different types of crops around each station. For adults, children and infants the estimated chronic inhalation risk, expressed as Hazard Quotient (HQ), was <1 for all pesticides. The cumulative exposure for organophosphates, neonicotinoids, benzimidazoles, carbamates, micro-organism and triazoles pesticides (HI, Hazard Index) were <1 for the three groups of populations assessed. For infants, the cancer risk estimated for the detected pesticides classified as possible and potential carcinogens were lower than 1.0 E-06, except for carbendazim and hexythiazox.

Utilization of long duration high-volume sampling coupled to SPME-GC-MS/MS for the assessment of airborne pesticides variability in an urban area (Strasbourg, France) during agricultural application

Atmospheric samples have been collected between 14 March and 12 September 2012 on a 2-week basis (15 days of sampling and exchange of traps each 7 days) in Strasbourg (east of France) for the analysis of 43 pesticides. Samples (particle and gas phases) were separately extracted using Accelerated Solvent Extraction (ASE) and pre-concentrated by Solid Phase Micro-Extraction (SPME) before analysis by gas chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). Four SPME consecutive injections at distinct temperatures were made in order to increase the sensitivity of detection for the all monitored pesticides. Currently used detected pesticides can be grouped in four classes; those used in maize crops (acetochlor, benoxacor, dicamba, s-metolachlor, pendimethalin, and bromoxynil), in cereal crops (benoxacor, chlorothalonil, fenpropimorph, and propiconazole), in vineyards (tebuconazole), and as herbicides for orchards, meadows of green spaces (2,4-MCPA, trichlopyr). This is in accordance with the diversity of crops found in the Alsace region and trends observed are in accordance with the period of application of these pesticides. Variations observed permit also to demonstrate that the long time sampling duration used in this study is efficient to visualize temporal variations of airborne pesticides concentrations. Then, long time high-volume sampling could be a simple method permitting atmospheric survey of atmospheric contamination without any long analysis time and consequently low cost.

Retrospective screening of pesticide metabolites in ambient air using liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry

A new methodology for the retrospective screening of pesticide metabolites in ambient air was developed, using liquid chromatography coupled to Orbitrap high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS), including two systematic workflows (i) post-run target screening (suspect screening) and (ii) non-target screening. An accurate-mass database was built and used for the post-run screening analysis. The database contained 240 pesticide metabolites found in different matrixes such as air, soil, water, plants, animals and humans. For non-target analysis, a "fragmentation-degradation" relationship strategy was selected. The proposed methodology was applied to 31 air samples (PM10) collected in the Valencian Region (Spain). In the post-target analysis 34 metabolites were identified, of which 11 (3-ketocarburan, carbofuran-7-phenol, carbendazim, desmethylisoproturon, ethiofencarb-sulfoxide, malaoxon, methiocarb-sulfoxide, N-(2-ethyl-6-methylphenyl)-L-alanine, omethoate, 2-hydroxy-terbuthylazine, and THPAM) were confirmed using analytical standards. The semiquantitative estimated concentration ranged between 6.78 and 198.31 pg m(-3). Likewise, two unknown degradation products of malaoxon and fenhexamid were elucidated in the non-target screening.

Analysis of currently used pesticides in fine airborne particulate matter (PM 2.5) by pressurized liquid extraction and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

During and after the application of currently used pesticides (CUPs) a significant fraction of applied pesticides can be lost to the air. A confirmatory and rapid procedure has been developed for the determination of four fungicides (carbendazim, thiabendazol, imazalil and bitertanol), three insecticides (imidacloprid, methidathion and pyriproxyfen), one helicide (methiocarb) and one acaricide (hexythiazox) in fine airborne particulate matter (PM 2.5) at trace level. The proposed method includes extraction of PM 2.5-bound pesticides by pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) followed by a direct injection into LC-MS/MS. The main parameters affecting the performance of the electrospray ionization source and PLE parameters were optimised using statistical design of experiments (DoE). The matrix effect was also evaluated. Recoveries ranged from 86 to 106% and the limit of quantification (LoQ) was 6.5 pg m(-3) for eight out of nine pesticides, when air volumes of 760 m(3) were collected. The method was applied to 60 samples collected from four stations of the monitoring network of the Regional Valencia Government (Spain) during August-October 2007. The measured concentrations ranged from not detected to 1,371 pg m(-3).

Determination of acrylamide in coffee and chocolate by pressurised fluid extraction and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

A selective and sensitive procedure has been developed and validated for the determination of acrylamide in difficult matrices, such as coffee and chocolate. The proposed method includes pressurised fluid extraction (PFE) with acetonitrile, florisil clean-up purification inside the PFE extraction cell and detection by liquid chromatography (LC) coupled to atmospheric pressure ionisation in positive mode tandem mass spectrometry (APCI-MS-MS). Comparison of ionisation sources (atmospheric pressure chemical ionisation (APCI), atmospheric pressure photoionization (APPI) and the combined APCI/APPI) and clean-up procedures were carried out to improve the analytical signal. The main parameters affecting the performance of the different ionisation sources were previously optimised using statistical design of experiments (DOE). PFE parameters were also optimised by DOE. For quantitation, an isotope dilution approach was used. The limit of quantification (LOQ) of the method was 1 microg kg(-1) for coffee and 0.6 microg kg(-1) for chocolate. Recoveries ranged between 81-105% in coffee and 87-102% in chocolate. The accuracy was evaluated using a coffee reference test material FAPAS T3008. Using the optimised method, 20 coffee and 15 chocolate samples collected from Valencian (Spain) supermarkets, were investigated for acrylamide, yielding median levels of 146 microg kg(-1) in coffee and 102 microg kg(-1) in chocolate.