Product vs corporate carbon footprint: Some methodological issues. A case study and review on the wine sector

Measures to reduce corporate GHG emissions: A review-based taxonomy and survey-based cluster analysis of their application and perceived effectiveness

Companies contribute to a large extent to greenhouse gas emission. To mitigate this, measures for reducing these emissions can be applied. There is, however, neither a systematized general overview of existing measures nor an estimation of their application and their effectiveness to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This study strives to close this gap by reviewing research on the reduction of corporate greenhouse gas emissions and synthesizing emission reduction measures in a taxonomy. Furthermore, the application of these measures and their perceived effectiveness is empirically assessed using a survey among companies that are involved in emission reduction activities. On this basis, a cluster analysis is conducted to identify measure types and to unveil application patterns. 27 different measures and 65 respective implementation examples are identified and structured within nine categories: energy, product, process, technology, 6R and waste management, office and mobility, management, reporting and disclosure, and compensation measures. The empirical analysis shows that there exist measures with a high efficiency to reduce emission, which are rarely applied in companies. On the other side, a large share of applied measures is not perceived as highly effective. Companies can use these results to structure their emission reduction activities and identify best practices.

Carbon footprint in Higher Education Institutions: a literature review and prospects for future research

Higher Education Institutions (HEI) or universities, as organisations engaged in education, research and community services, play an important role in promoting sustainable development. Therefore, they are increasingly linked to the initiative of calculating their carbon footprint (CF), which is a tool to assess sustainability from the perspective of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The aim of this study is to carry out a systematic review of the current situation of CF assessment in academic institutions by analysing different key elements, such as the time period, methodologies and practises, calculation tools, emission sources, emission factors and reduction plans. The review protocol considered articles published until March 2021. Of the articles reviewed, 35 are aimed specifically at calculating the CF of HEI, while the remaining articles consist of review, activity-specific CF assessment or GHG emission reduction articles. Clear differences have been identified when results are compared for the normalised CF (average of 2.67 t CO2e/student, ranging from 0.06 to 10.94) or the percentage of carbon offsetting, only considered in 14% of the studies and ranging from 0.09 to 18%. The main reason for this is the lack of standardisation as regards the time metric (year, semester), functional unit (student, employee, area) and data collection boundary (scope 1, 2, 3), the emissions sources and emission factors, mainly for scope 3 (water consumption and treatment, waste treatment, office, ICT and laboratory consumables, commuting and travel, construction materials, canteens, etc.), and the inclusion or not of the effect of carbon offset projects to offset the CF (aim of the project and absorption sources and factors). However, despite the differences, a reduction over time is clearly observed. Therefore, CF in HEI requires further improvements and solutions to a number of challenges, including the definition of representative emission sources, the creation of a robust emission factor database and the development of tools/methodologies that cover all the needs of this type of organisation.

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Benchmarking of carbon footprint data from the Italian wine sector: A comprehensive and extended analysis

The interest in sustainability, within the wine sector, is growing simultaneously with the awareness of the environmental impacts on climate change generated by the sector itself. In this context, environmental methodologies need to be applied: Carbon Footprint of a Product (CFP) is a quantitative expression of Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) emissions that plays an influent role in emission management and evaluation of mitigation measures over the full life cycle of a product. Moreover, CFP application in the agri-food sector remains scarce due to complex, expensive, and difficult data collection. This paper aims to determine the main factors that contribute to the CFP of 33 Italian wines from 16 wineries and compare and evaluate the results obtained using all the inventory data or results obtained using a simplified model with fewer inputs. The results per Function Unit (0.75/ L of wine) have been obtained using a unique methodology. Considering system boundaries from cradle to grave, at 90% confidence interval, CFP results ranged between 0.899 kg CO₂ eq./FU and 1.882 kg CO₂ eq./FU. The study underlines that most of the impacts can be related to few inventory data, in fact the main contributors of GHGs emissions are: glass bottle (29%), electricity used in the winery stage (14%), transport and distribution of the final product (13%), heat used in the winery phase (9%) and fossil fuels used in vineyard (8%). The results can be helpful to support the development of a simplified CFP and to obtain a benchmark for the CFP of the Italian wine sector. Furthermore, the present study can help businesses, policy makers and consumers in making decisions that lead to a better environmental outcome.

The Impact Packaging Type Has on the Flavor of Wine

This is a literature review of the most commonly available wine packaging categories. This includes glass bottles, polyethylene terephthalate bottles (PET), bag-in-box (BIB), aluminum cans, and Tetra Pak. This review includes a description and history of each category. In addition, the market share and environmental impacts of each category are discussed. Special attention is paid to the reported impact on packaged wine flavor and aroma for each packaging type. Finally, the potential impacts on consumer preference are discussed. While glass is still the dominant packaging material within the wine industry and by consumer demand, economic and environmental concerns are driving the industry and consumers to investigate and adopt alternative packaging materials.

Industry 4.0 Maturity Model Assessing Environmental Attributes of Manufacturing Company

The primary purpose of this article is to present a maturity model dealing with environmental manufacturing processes in a company. According to some authors, Industry 4.0 is based on characteristics that have already been the focus of “lean and green” concepts. The goal of the article was to move from resource consumption, pollutant emissions, and more extensive manufacturing towards environmentally responsible manufacturing (ERM). Using environmental materials and methods reduces energy consumption, which generates cost savings and higher profits. Here, value stream mapping (VSM) was applied to identify core processes with environmental potential. This paper provides an understanding of the role of environmental manufacturing in the era of the Fourth Industrial Revolution.

Stabilising Rural Roads with Waste Streams in Colombia as an Environmental Strategy Based on a Life Cycle Assessment Methodology

Roads with low traffic volume link rural settlements together and connect them with urban centres, mobilising goods and agricultural products, and facilitating the transportation of people. In Colombia, most of these roads are in poor conditions, causing social, economic, and environmental problems, and significantly affecting the mobility, security, and economic progress of the country and its inhabitants. Therefore, it is essential to implement strategies to improve such roads, keeping in mind technical, economic, and environmental criteria. This article shows the results of the application of the environmental life cycle assessment—LCA—to sections of two low-traffic roads located in two different sites in Colombia: one in the Urrao area (Antioquia), located in the centre of the country; and another in La Paz (Cesar), located in the northeast of the country. Each segment was stabilised with alternative materials such as brick dust, fly ash, sulfonated oil, and polymer. The analysis was carried out in three stages: the first was the manufacture of the stabiliser; the second included preliminary actions that ranged from the search for the material to its placement on site; and the third was the stabilisation process, which included the entire application process, from the stabiliser to the road. The environmental impacts are mainly found in the manufacture of stabilisers (60% of the total), for sulfonated oil or polymer, due to the different compounds used during production, before their use as stabilisers. The impact categories with the greatest influence were abiotic depletion potential (ADP), global warming potential (GWP) and terrestrial ecotoxicity potential (TETP). For the stabilisation stage (impact between 40% and 99%), ash and brick dust have the highest impacts. The impact categories most influenced in this stage were: acidification potential (AP), freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity potential (FAETP), human toxicity potential (HTP), marine aquatic ecotoxicity potential (MAETP) and photochemical ozone creation potential (POCP).

Assessment of the environmental impacts associated with vineyards and winemaking. A case study in mountain areas

Mountain wines produced in specific mountain areas and following singular practices have gained popularity over the last few decades. During this time, the environmental impacts associated with the food and beverage manufacturing sector have become a question of interest. However, the environmental impacts derived from the production of this peculiar wine have scarcely been studied until now. A mountain winery in north Spain has been analyzed as representative of PDO "Cangas" winemaking by means of life cycle assessment (LCA). High-quality inventory data for one year of operation was obtained directly from this facility and two steps have been considered, the vineyard and the winery phases. The main factors involved in grape cultivation and wine production were included. In common with standard winemaking processes, the use of fertilizers and the production of glass bottles were the principal hotspots in the grape cultivation and wine production phases, respectively. Additionally, in the winery here evaluated, waste management also contributed notably to several impacts, mainly due to the employment of traditional practices such as the incineration in situ of vineyard pruning wastes. The carbon footprint obtained for "Cangas" PDO wine was 2.35 kg of CO₂eq per 0.75-l bottle, a value within the range reported in the literature for different wines around the world (0.2-2.5 kg CO₂eq per bottle). A sensitivity analysis has shown that changes in vineyard productivity and the amount of fertilizers applied to the land would strongly affect the environmental performance of the wine manufacturing process. Some alternative scenarios have been proposed, modifying the management of pruning wastes in the vineyard and the packaging material in the winery. Results showed that environmental impacts associated with the production of this mountain wine could be notably reduced simply by reusing a percentage of the bottles and/or composting the organic wastes. Specifically, the carbon footprint would be 40% lower if these two improvements were implemented. Considering the lack of similar studies, further research on the production of mountain wines should be carried out in other regions to increase the knowledge about the environmental impacts associated with the manufacturing of this singular type of wine.

Comparative Assessment of Carbon Footprints of Selected Organizations: The Application of the Enhanced Bilan Carbone Model

Making organizations aware of their carbon footprint (CF) and proposing measures to reduce it are important segments of climate change mitigation. As a part of this process, an enhanced Bilan Carbone model with incorporated country-specific greenhouse gas (GHG) emission factors was applied for CF calculations of three organizations (Agency, Faculty, and Institute). The model, fully in line with international CF calculation standards, can be applied to calculate the CF of any organization on the global level. The paper provides a comparative assessment of CFs of considered organizations and preconditions for a reliable comparison. The calculated CFs values for 2017 were 513.4 t CO2 e for the Agency, 4254.7 t CO2 e for the Faculty, and 477.0 t CO2 e for the Institute. Comparing specific CF, the Faculty had the highest value per employee (9.4 t CO2 e/employee) and the lowest value per heated area (131 kg CO2 e/m2), followed by the Institute (5.4 t CO2 e/employee and 222 kg CO2 e/m2) and the Agency (4.5 t CO2 e/employee and 294 kg CO2 e/m2). Using the enhanced Bilan Carbone model, adapted to national conditions, could lead to the harmonization of the organizations’ CF calculation and enable the identification of significant emission sources. This will facilitate the definition of GHG reduction targets and the identification of mitigation measures for achieving the targets, as presented in the example of the Institute.

Sustainable Viticulture: First Determination of the Environmental Footprint of Grapes

We present for the first time the environmental footprint (EF) of grapes following the methodology proposed by the EU and life cycle assessment (LCA). We used data from three different production systems, conventional high- or low-input and organic from vineyards on the Mediterranean island of Cyprus. The life cycle inventory (LCI) data were retrieved from the recently released AGRIBALYSE database, and the EF was determined with the Open LCA software. The system boundary was from “cradle to winery door” and the functional unit was 1 ton of grapes delivered to the winery. Organic grape production had the lowest values for most of the 16 EF impact categories. Machinery, fuel, and sulfur production and use were identified as EF hotspots for organic grapes. Fertilizer production and use were identified as EF hotspots for high-input grape production. The EF impact category values for low-input grapes showed similarities with organic production. Future research needs to enrich the LCI databases with data more applicable to the methods and inputs applied in Mediterranean agriculture.

Water to wine in wineries in Portugal Douro Region: Comparative study between wineries with different sizes

Wine production, one of the oldest industries in the world is an industry for which water use in winery operations is often disregarded of best practice, with many managers unconscious how water is used within their operations. Given the economic and cultural significance attributed to wine production in Portugal and in the world, it is crucial that research be undertaken to understand how water is used in wine industry in order to increase the efficient use of this vital resource. The study aimed to measure, evaluate and discuss the water consumption in three wineries with different production volumes. Results showed that there are clearly two distinct seasons in the consumption of water: a low season (from November to August, sensu lato), with reduced consumptions, and a high season, corresponding to the harvest/first racking period (September/October), a period in which water consumption is multiplied by a factor 2-3 in the smallest wineries, or by a factor 5 in the larger ones. Outside the harvest period, consumption shows a linear evolution in all wineries. During the harvest/first rackings season (September/October), consumption increases, showing an exponential evolution, with around 35 to 50% of annual water accumulated consumption (as shown in A and B wineries mainly). In fact, results show that the quantity of wine produced influences, above all, the specific consumption of water (l of water per l wine produced), benefiting large wineries due to the greater scale economy. The values founded for the specific consumption of water are still very high, and that lives a field for research to look for specific measures of efficiency in the use of water in this type of industry.

Soil Carbon Budget Account for the Sustainability Improvement of a Mediterranean Vineyard Area

Sustainable viticulture is suggested as an interesting strategy for achieving the objectives of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction in terms of mitigation and adaptation. However, knowledge and quantification of the contribution of sustainable vineyard management on climate change impact are needed. Although it is widely assessed by several authors that the agricultural stage has a great impact in the wine chain, very few studies have evaluated the greenhouse gas emission in this phase including the ability of soil to sequester carbon (C) or the off-farm C loss by erosion. This work aimed to provide a vineyard carbon budget (vCB) tool to quantify the impact of grape production on GHG emission including the effects of environmental characteristics and agricultural practices. The vCB was estimated considering four different soil management scenarios: conventional tillage (CT), temporary cover crop with a leguminous species in alternate inter-rows (ACC), temporary cover crop with a leguminous species (CC), permanent cover crop (PCC). The estimation of vCB was applied at territory level in a viticulture area in Sicily (2468 ha of vineyard) using empirical data. Results of the present study showed that the environmental characteristics strongly affect the sustainability of vineyard management; the highest contribution to total CO2 emission is, in fact, given by the C losses by erosion in sloping vineyards. Soils of studied vineyards are a source of CO2 due to the low C inputs and high mineralization rate, except for soil managed by CC which can sequester soil C, contributing positively to vCB. The highest total CO2 emission was estimated in vineyards under CT management (2.31 t ha−1y−1), followed by CC (1.27 t ha−1y−1), ACC (0.69 t ha−1y−1) and PCC (0.64 t ha−1y−1). Findings of vCB applied at territory level highlighted the key role of the evaluation of carbon budget (CB) on a larger scale to identify the CO2 emission in relation to climatic and environmental factors. The present study could contribute to provide suggestions to policymakers and farmers for reducing GHG emissions and promote more sustainable grape production practices.

Comparison of Water-focused Life Cycle Assessment and Water Footprint Assessment: The case of an Italian wine

In recent decades, the debate on how to implement and measure sustainability in food production gained increasing importance and interest for agriculture. In the wine sector, producers are increasingly pursuing sustainable practices, including measures for water preservation from degradation and overuse. But methodologies for assessing and communicating the impacts on water resources need to be understood in detail to guide the selection of the most appropriate management practices, support environmental labelling and promote environmental-friendly products to consumers. This work focuses on the impacts on water resources associated with the production of Italian wine by comparing two methodologies: the Water-focused Life Cycle Assessment and the "Water" indicator included in the Italian "VIVA" certification framework, which is based on the Water Footprint Assessment. The two methodologies address the impact on freshwater consumption and degradation from a life cycle perspective. VIVA is based on a water balance method that reflects a volumetric measure of water consumption, while the LCA-based approach investigates both the freshwater consumption and depletion using different impact indicators. The study goal is to compare the two methodologies to understand how their outcomes can support and improve the management of water-related issues in wine production. One main conclusion is that the WATER indicator within VIVA framework can provide more precise recommendations for the optimal management of water use during the vineyard phase, while LCA approach highlights impact hotspots related to both direct and indirect use of water resources (e.g., it points out the relevant contribution of the bottling stage to different impact indicators). The comparative application of both methodologies can provide useful insights into the water-related impacts of different wine production processes and stages and support a comprehensive assessment of the best management practices, unless the differences in the methodological approaches and goals are well understood by assessors.

Carbon footprint of fertilizer technologies

The work discussed the necessity to evaluate the environmental effect - i.e. carbon footprint (CF), of N-containing fertilizers when including their production, transportation and use. For that purpose, life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology was involved. The LCA-based CF concerned model fertilizer technology determined with the consideration of greenhouse gases assimilation during fertilizer-induced vegetation, as compared to non-treated crops system. According to the available data, the inclusion of CO₂ assimilation by plants via photosynthesis in balance sheet offsets 87.6% of the CF from the biomass consumption. Thus, the new approach to LCA along with the analysis of life cycle costs would provide more reliable determination of the fee amount charged to European fertilizer manufacturers. The approach might be further developed for various products for plant treatment. Also, the verification of similar fertilizer technologies in different installations is expected to identify bottlenecks in terms of the ecological, technical and economic evaluation.

Tackling the Relevance of Packaging in Life Cycle Assessment of Virgin Olive Oil and the Environmental Consequences of Regulation

Production and consumption of olive oil is very important in Europe, being this product a basic element in the Mediterranean diet since long ago. The project objective is two-fold: a study of the contribution of virgin olive oils (VOOs) usual packaging to the whole life cycle of the product and a study of the environmental consequences of the Spanish Government regulation on VOO packaging. A life cycle assessment (LCA) according to ISO 14044 has been performed using the CML methodology for the impact assessment. The results show that the packaging influence varies from 2 to 300%, depending on the impact category and type of packaging (glass, tin or polyethylene terephtalate). Glass, which is related to higher quality perception by consumers, was found to be the most influencing material (due to its weight); however, this impact may be fairly reduced by applying ecodesign strategies (such as weight reduction and recycled-glass percentage increase). A new Spanish regulation on the mandatory use of non-refillable oilers in HORECA establishments (hotels, restaurants and caterings) aims to provide more quality assurance and better information to consumers; however, it was also found to mean a 74% increase in greenhouse gases emissions. This regulation was deeply discussed at European level and its application was withdraw due to consumers rejection, except for Spain. The findings of the present case study show that LCA and ecodesign should be important tools to be promoted and applied in policy making to reduce non-desirable consequences of regulation.

Bio-Based Compounds from Grape Seeds: A Biorefinery Approach

Food and agricultural waste represents a growing problem with negative effects on the economy, environment, and human health. Winemaking produces byproducts with high added value, which can be used for new productions in several application fields. From the perspective of biorefinery and circular economy, grape seeds could be exploited by extracting bioactive compounds with high added value before using biomass for energy purposes. The markets concerned are, in addition to the food, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals sectors, which use bioactive compounds, the sector of biopolymeric materials and of energy for the production of biohydrogen and biomethane. Generally, bioactive components should be investigated through an integrated and multidisciplinary study approach based on emerging analytical techniques; in this context, attention is addressed towards green and sustainable procedures; an update of extraction techniques, innovative technologies, and chemometrics are described. Nowadays, processes so far tested on a pilot scale for grape waste are developed to enhance the extraction yields. Here, a picture of the Italian experience applied to the byproducts of the wine industry is given.

Harvesting system sustainability in Mediterranean olive cultivation

The mechanization of farming operation plays an important role in improving the profitability of the agricultural sector by increasing work productivity and reducing production costs. However, the new challenges of agriculture also include the environmental issues. The choice between different alternatives to perform a determined agricultural practice should be based on reliable information, considering technical, economic and environmental aspects. Olive growing represents the most important agricultural production in the Mediterranean Basin and its mechanization, particularly harvesting, could have major impacts on the sustainability of this production. This study aims at assessing various olive-harvesting scenarios, while considering technical, economic and environmental aspects in order to build a beta version of the "olive-harvesting database". The proposed methodology called "modular approach" could represent a useful tool to apply in unitary process assessment in order to obtain a comprehensive database of the diverse agricultural operations. The methodology was based on Life Cycle Assessment and production cost analysis. Technical performance evaluation showed that the recorded work capacities varied between 5 tons of harvested olives per day when employing mechanical harvest aids and 18 tons per day when employing trunk shakers. The economic evaluation highlighted that the harvesting costs are variable as a function of the given cost type (costs per hour, costs per kg of harvested olives and costs per hectare). The LCA revealed that mechanically aided techniques were the most sustainable ones when the functional unit is considered as one harvesting hour, although this FU is not the most suitable unit for choosing the best environmental solution. The surface and production mass units are more appropriate FUs in comparative studies, although they are strictly linked to the "work capacity". A significant variation in the environmental performances depended on the FUs and on the average yields when the FU represented one kg of harvested olives.