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Szapu JS, Cserkész T, Pirger Z, Kiss C, Lanszki J. Exposure to anticoagulant rodenticides in steppe polecat (Mustela eversmanii) and European polecat (Mustela putorius) in central Europe. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 948:174282. [PMID: 38960164 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2024] [Revised: 06/20/2024] [Accepted: 06/23/2024] [Indexed: 07/05/2024]
Abstract
Poisoning caused by coumarin-type anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) stands as the predominant method for controlling rodents globally. ARs, through secondary poisoning, pose a significant threat to predators due to their lethal and sublethal effects. We examined the concentration of accumulated ARs in liver samples of mostly road-killed steppe polecats (Mustela eversmanii) and European polecats (M. putorius) collected throughout Hungary between 2005 and 2021. The steppe polecat samples were found mainly from Eastern Hungary, while European polecats from Western Hungary. We measured the concentration of six residues by HPLC-FLD. Our analysis revealed the presence of one first-generation and four second-generation ARs in 53% of the steppe polecat (36) and 39% of the European polecat (26) samples. In 17 samples we detected the presence of at least two AR compounds. Although we did not find significant variance in AR accumulation between the two species, steppe polecats displayed greater prevalence and maximum concentration of ARs, whereas European polecat samples exhibited a more diverse accumulation of these compounds. Brodifacoum and bromadiolone were the most prevalent ARs; the highest concentrations were 0.57 mg/kg and 0.33 mg/kg, respectively. The accumulation of ARs was positively correlated with human population density and negatively correlated with the extent of the more natural habitats in both species. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to demonstrate anticoagulant rodenticide exposure in steppe polecats globally, and for European polecats in Central European region. Although the extent of AR accumulation in European polecat in Hungary appears comparatively lower than in many other European countries, the issue of secondary poisoning remains a serious problem as these ARs intrude into food webs. Reduced and more prudent usage of pesticides would provide several benefits for wildlife, included humans. However, we advocate a prioritization of ecosystem services through the complete prohibition of the toxicants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julianna Szulamit Szapu
- Doctoral School of Biology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/c, 1117 Budapest, Hungary.
| | - Tamás Cserkész
- Hungarian Natural History Museum, Baross utca 13, 1088 Budapest, Hungary.
| | - Zsolt Pirger
- HUN-REN Balaton Limnological Research Institute, Klebelsberg Kunó utca 3, 8237 Tihany, Hungary; National Laboratory for Water Science and Water Security, Balaton Limnological Research Institute, Klebelsberg Kunó utca 3, 8237 Tihany, Hungary.
| | - Csaba Kiss
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Biology, Eszterházy Károly Catholic University, Eszterházy tér 1, 3300 Eger, Hungary.
| | - József Lanszki
- HUN-REN Balaton Limnological Research Institute, Klebelsberg Kunó utca 3, 8237 Tihany, Hungary; Institute of Animal Science, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Guba Sándor út 40, 7400 Kaposvár, Hungary.
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Scammell K, Cooke R, Yokochi K, Carter N, Nguyen H, White JG. The missing toxic link: Exposure of non-target native marsupials to second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SGARs) suggest a potential route of transfer into apex predators. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 933:173191. [PMID: 38740216 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.173191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Revised: 01/30/2024] [Accepted: 05/11/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
Anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) are used globally to control rodent pests. Second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SGARs) persist in the liver and pose a significant risk of bioaccumulation and secondary poisoning in predators, including species that do not generally consume rodents. As such, there is a clear need to understand the consumption of ARs, particularly SGARs, by non-target consumers to determine the movement of these anticoagulants through ecosystems. We collected and analysed the livers from deceased common brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) and common ringtail possums (Pseudocheirus peregrinus), native Australian marsupials that constitute the main diet of the powerful owl (Ninox strenua), an Australian apex predator significantly exposed to SGAR poisoning. ARs were detected in 91 % of brushtail possums and 40 % of ringtail possums. Most of the detections were attributed to SGARs, while first-generation anticoagulant rodenticides (FGARs) were rarely detected. SGAR concentrations were likely lethal or toxic in 42 % of brushtail possums and 4 % of ringtail possums with no effect of age, sex, or weight detected in either species. There was also no effect of the landscape type possums were from, suggesting SGAR exposure is ubiquitous across landscapes. The rate of exposure detected in these possums provides insight into the pathway through which ARs are transferred to one of their key predators, the powerful owl. With SGARs entering food-webs through non-target species, the potential for bioaccumulation and broader secondary poisoning of predators is significantly greater and highlights an urgent need for routine rodenticide testing in non-target consumers that present as ill or found deceased. To limit their impact on ecosystem stability the use of SGARs should be significantly regulated by governing agencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kieran Scammell
- Deakin University, Geelong School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, Engineering and the Built Environment, 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood 3125, Vic., Australia
| | - Raylene Cooke
- Deakin University, Geelong School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, Engineering and the Built Environment, 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood 3125, Vic., Australia.
| | - Kaori Yokochi
- Deakin University, Geelong School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, Engineering and the Built Environment, 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood 3125, Vic., Australia
| | - Nicholas Carter
- Deakin University, Geelong School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, Engineering and the Built Environment, 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood 3125, Vic., Australia
| | - Hao Nguyen
- National Measurement Institute, 1/153 Bertie Street, Port Melbourne 3207, Vic., Australia
| | - John G White
- Deakin University, Geelong School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, Engineering and the Built Environment, 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood 3125, Vic., Australia
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Spadetto L, Gómez-Ramírez P, Zamora-Marín JM, León-Ortega M, Díaz-García S, Tecles F, Fenoll J, Cava J, Calvo JF, García-Fernández AJ. Active monitoring of long-eared owl (Asio otus) nestlings reveals widespread exposure to anticoagulant rodenticides across different agricultural landscapes. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 918:170492. [PMID: 38307270 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2023] [Revised: 01/24/2024] [Accepted: 01/25/2024] [Indexed: 02/04/2024]
Abstract
The widespread use of anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) poses a worldwide threat to farmland wildlife. These compounds accumulate in tissues of both target and non-target species, potentially endangering both direct consumers and their predators. However, investigations on ARs in blood of free-ranging predatory birds are rare. Here, the long-eared owl (Asio otus) has been used as a model predator to assess AR exposure in different agricultural landscapes from a Mediterranean semiarid region. A total of 69 owlets from 38 nests were blood-sampled over 2021 and 2022, aiming to detect AR residues and explore factors that determine their exposure, such as land uses. In addition, prothrombin time (PT) test was conducted to assess potential effects of AR contamination. Overall, nearly all the samples (98.6 %) tested positive for at least one compound and multiple ARs were found in most of the individuals (82.6 %). Among the ARs detected, flocoumafen was the most common compound (88.4 % of the samples). AR total concentration (ΣARs) in blood ranged from 0.06 to 34.18 ng mL-1, detecting the highest levels in the most intensively cultivated area. The analysis of owl pellets from 19 breeding territories showed relevant among-site differences in the contribution of rodents and birds into the diet of long-eared owls, supporting its high dietary plasticity and indicating AR presence at multiple trophic levels. Moreover, a positive and significant correlation was found between ΣARs and PT (Rho = 0.547, p < 0.001), which demonstrates the direct effect of ARs on free-living nestlings. Our results provide a preliminary overview of AR exposure in a little-studied owl species inhabiting agricultural and rural landscapes. Despite the low detected levels, these findings indicate widespread exposure -often to multiple compounds- from early life stages, which raises concern and draws attention to an ongoing and unresolved contamination issue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Livia Spadetto
- Toxicology Research Group, Faculty of Veterinary, Campus de Espinardo, University of Murcia, 30100 Murcia, Spain
| | - Pilar Gómez-Ramírez
- Toxicology Research Group, Faculty of Veterinary, Campus de Espinardo, University of Murcia, 30100 Murcia, Spain.
| | - José Manuel Zamora-Marín
- ULULA Association for Owl Study and Conservation, 30100 Murcia, Spain; Department of Applied Biology, Centro de Investigación e Innovación Agroalimentaria (CIAGRO-UMH), Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Elche, Spain; Department of Zoology and Physical Anthropology, Faculty of Biology, University of Murcia, 30100 Murcia, Spain
| | - Mario León-Ortega
- ULULA Association for Owl Study and Conservation, 30100 Murcia, Spain
| | - Sarah Díaz-García
- ULULA Association for Owl Study and Conservation, 30100 Murcia, Spain
| | - Fernando Tecles
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Clinical Analysis (Interlab-UMU), Veterinary School, Regional Campus of International Excellence 'Campus Mare Nostrum', University of Murcia, 30100 Murcia, Spain
| | - José Fenoll
- Instituto Murciano de Investigación y Desarrollo Agrario y Alimentario, IMIDA, 30150 Murcia, Spain
| | - Juana Cava
- Instituto Murciano de Investigación y Desarrollo Agrario y Alimentario, IMIDA, 30150 Murcia, Spain
| | - José Francisco Calvo
- Department of Ecology and Hydrology, Faculty of Biology, University of Murcia, 30100 Murcia, Spain
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Musto C, Cerri J, Capizzi D, Fontana MC, Rubini S, Merialdi G, Berzi D, Ciuti F, Santi A, Rossi A, Barsi F, Gelmini L, Fiorentini L, Pupillo G, Torreggiani C, Bianchi A, Gazzola A, Prati P, Sala G, Apollonio M, Delogu M, Biancardi A, Uboldi L, Moretti A, Garbarino C. First evidence of widespread positivity to anticoagulant rodenticides in grey wolves (Canis lupus). THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 915:169990. [PMID: 38232835 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.169990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2023] [Revised: 01/05/2024] [Accepted: 01/05/2024] [Indexed: 01/19/2024]
Abstract
Second-generation Anticoagulant Rodenticides (ARs) can be critical for carnivores, due to their widespread use and impacts. However, although many studies explored the impacts of ARs on small and mesocarnivores, none assessed the extent to which they could contaminate large carnivores in anthropized landscapes. We filled this gap by exploring spatiotemporal trends in grey wolf (Canis lupus) exposure to ARs in central and northern Italy, by subjecting a large sample of dead wolves (n = 186) to the LC-MS/MS method. Most wolves (n = 115/186, 61.8 %) tested positive for ARs (1 compound, n = 36; 2 compounds, n = 47; 3 compounds, n = 16; 4 or more compounds, n = 16). Bromadiolone, brodifacoum and difenacoum, were the most common compounds, with brodifacoum and bromadiolone being the ARs that co-occurred the most (n = 61). Both the probability of testing positive for multiple ARs and the concentration of brodifacoum, and bromadiolone in the liver, systematically increased in wolves that were found at more anthropized sites. Moreover, wolves became more likely to test positive for ARs through time, particularly after 2020. Our results underline that rodent control, based on ARs, increases the risks of unintentional poisoning of non-target wildlife. However, this risk does not only involve small and mesocarnivores, but also large carnivores at the top of the food chain, such as wolves. Therefore, rodent control is adding one further conservation threat to endangered large carnivores in anthropized landscapes of Europe, whose severity could increase over time and be far higher than previously thought. Large-scale monitoring schemes for ARs in European large carnivores should be devised as soon as possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmela Musto
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, University of Bologna, 40064 Bologna, Italy.
| | - Jacopo Cerri
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy.
| | - Dario Capizzi
- Directorate for Environment, Latium Region, 00173 Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Cristina Fontana
- Istituto Zooprofilattico della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "B. Ubertini", 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Silva Rubini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "B. Ubertini", 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Merialdi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "B. Ubertini", 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Duccio Berzi
- Centro per lo Studio e la Documentazione sul Lupo, 50033 Firenze, Italy
| | - Francesca Ciuti
- Centro per lo Studio e la Documentazione sul Lupo, 50033 Firenze, Italy
| | - Annalisa Santi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "B. Ubertini", 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Arianna Rossi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "B. Ubertini", 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Filippo Barsi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "B. Ubertini", 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Luca Gelmini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "B. Ubertini", 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Laura Fiorentini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "B. Ubertini", 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Giovanni Pupillo
- Istituto Zooprofilattico della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "B. Ubertini", 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Camilla Torreggiani
- Istituto Zooprofilattico della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "B. Ubertini", 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Alessandro Bianchi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "B. Ubertini", 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Alessandra Gazzola
- Istituto Zooprofilattico della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "B. Ubertini", 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Paola Prati
- Istituto Zooprofilattico della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "B. Ubertini", 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Giovanni Sala
- Istituto Zooprofilattico della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "B. Ubertini", 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Marco Apollonio
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy
| | - Mauro Delogu
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, University of Bologna, 40064 Bologna, Italy
| | - Alberto Biancardi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "B. Ubertini", 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Laura Uboldi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "B. Ubertini", 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Alessandro Moretti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "B. Ubertini", 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Chiara Garbarino
- Istituto Zooprofilattico della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "B. Ubertini", 25124 Brescia, Italy
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Carrera A, Navas I, María-Mojica P, García-Fernández AJ. Greater predisposition to second generation anticoagulant rodenticide exposure in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) weakened by suspected infectious disease. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 907:167780. [PMID: 37865245 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Revised: 10/08/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 10/23/2023]
Abstract
Anticoagulant rodenticide (AR) exposure in wild carnivores is a current and global concern due to continuous and widespread use worldwide. We studied the prevalence of ARs in liver samples of 25 red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), 3 European badgers (Meles meles) and 2 genets (Genneta genneta) from Alicante (Spanish Levante region) obtained in 2021 and 2022. In addition to trauma, poisoning by pesticides is the most frequent cause of death in wild carnivores in this region. The present research aims to explain a possible association between the fact of suffering from an infectious disease and the increase in ARs concentrations in the affected animals. Both first- and second-generation ARs were analysed by HPLC/MS/TOF in liver samples. Apart from the cause of death, the influence of other variables such as age, sex and body weight were also assessed on AR liver concentrations. Potential health risks for individuals and populations in the study area have also been studied. Our research detected higher AR concentrations in the group of red foxes clinically diagnosed with infectious disease compared to the group of apparently healthy red foxes, mostly killed by trauma. Furthermore, our results lead us to suggest that red fox could be considered a good sentinel species for the risk of exposure to ARs in other wild mammals. All the livers analysed contained ARs and the most detected compounds in red fox were difenacoum, bromadiolone, brodifacoum, present in all the samples analysed, and flocoumafen (in 96 %). Additionally, 53 % of the animals had at least one second generation anticoagulant rodenticide (SGAR) above the threshold value reported as triggering adverse health effects (200 ng/g). Regarding this, the level of risk in red fox in this area might be classified as high and worrying. Moreover, we suggest that individuals and populations with weakened health due to other diseases (for example, infectious or parasitic diseases) might be more prone to high exposure to anticoagulant rodenticides and, very probably, would be more sensitive to suffering serious effects at lower doses of ARs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Carrera
- Servicio de Toxicología y Veterinaria Forense, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Campus de Espinardo, Universidad de Murcia, Murcia, Spain
| | - Isabel Navas
- Servicio de Toxicología y Veterinaria Forense, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Campus de Espinardo, Universidad de Murcia, Murcia, Spain; Toxicology and Risk Assessment Group, IMIB-Arrixaca, Campus de Ciencias de la Salud El Palmar, Universidad de Murcia, Spain.
| | - Pedro María-Mojica
- Servicio de Toxicología y Veterinaria Forense, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Campus de Espinardo, Universidad de Murcia, Murcia, Spain; Centro de Recuperación de Fauna Santa Faz (Alicante), VAERSA-Servicio de Vida Silvestre, Generalitat Valenciana, Spain
| | - Antonio J García-Fernández
- Servicio de Toxicología y Veterinaria Forense, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Campus de Espinardo, Universidad de Murcia, Murcia, Spain; Toxicology and Risk Assessment Group, IMIB-Arrixaca, Campus de Ciencias de la Salud El Palmar, Universidad de Murcia, Spain
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Regnery J, Rohner S, Bachtin J, Möhlenkamp C, Zinke O, Jacob S, Wohlsein P, Siebert U, Reifferscheid G, Friesen A. First evidence of widespread anticoagulant rodenticide exposure of the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) in Germany. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 907:167938. [PMID: 37866608 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2023] [Revised: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 10/24/2023]
Abstract
Exposure of wildlife to anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) has been extensively documented for species directly or indirectly linked to pest rodents via the terrestrial food web. Recently, the scientific focus extended to a former blind spot, namely AR emissions to the aquatic environment, and provided clear evidence of AR residues in freshwater fish. As second-generation ARs are likely to be transferred along the aquatic food chain, a total of 122 Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) individuals found dead in Germany between 2005 and 2021 were investigated to shed more light on resultant environmental risks. Target analytes comprised one pharmaceutical and eight biocidal anticoagulants, as well as one suspected bait impurity. Notably, all target compounds were detected in the analyzed livers of otters, a primarily piscivorous top predator and indicator species for the aquatic environment, strictly protected by conservation laws. In regions with pronounced rodent control measures, otters were frequently exposed to biocidal ARs. The elevated AR levels measured in multiple otters, compared to freshwater fish, hinted at biomagnification of second-generation ARs within the aquatic food web. The results indicated that risk mitigation measures implemented in Germany within the biocidal product authorization may not be sufficient to protect aquatic non-target wildlife from AR exposure, challenging the effectiveness of current regulatory measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Regnery
- Federal Institute of Hydrology, Department of Biochemistry and Ecotoxicology, 56068 Koblenz, Germany.
| | - Simon Rohner
- University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, 25761 Büsum, Germany
| | - Julia Bachtin
- Federal Institute of Hydrology, Department of Biochemistry and Ecotoxicology, 56068 Koblenz, Germany
| | - Christel Möhlenkamp
- Federal Institute of Hydrology, Department of Biochemistry and Ecotoxicology, 56068 Koblenz, Germany
| | - Olaf Zinke
- Museum of the Westlausitz Kamenz, Department of Zoology, 01917 Kamenz, Germany
| | - Stefanie Jacob
- German Environment Agency, Section IV 1.2 Biocides, 06844 Dessau-Rosslau, Germany
| | - Peter Wohlsein
- University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Department of Pathology, 30559 Hannover, Germany
| | - Ursula Siebert
- University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, 25761 Büsum, Germany
| | - Georg Reifferscheid
- Federal Institute of Hydrology, Department of Biochemistry and Ecotoxicology, 56068 Koblenz, Germany
| | - Anton Friesen
- German Environment Agency, Section IV 1.2 Biocides, 06844 Dessau-Rosslau, Germany
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Han M, Zhang J, Wei H, Zou W, Zhang M, Meng X, Chen W, Shao H, Wang C. Rapid and Robust Analysis of Coumatetralyl in Environmental Water and Human Urine Using a Portable Raman Spectrometer. ACS OMEGA 2023; 8:12878-12885. [PMID: 37065026 PMCID: PMC10099114 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c00005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
The widespread use and exposure of coumatetralyl (CMTT) has led to its accumulation in the environment and organisms, causing damage to ecosystems and adverse health effects in humans. Unfortunately, achieving fast detection of CMTT remains challenging. Herein, a rapid and robust surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) method was developed for rapid on-site detection of CMTT in environmental water and human urine. Clear trends were observed between the signal intensity and the logarithmic concentration of CMTT, ranging from 0.025 to 5.0 μg/mL with high reproducibility. The detection limits in water and human urine were as low as 1.53 and 13.71 ng/mL, respectively. The recoveries of CMTT for environmental water and urine samples were 90.2-98.2 and 82.0-87.5%, respectively, satisfactory for practical applications. The quantitative results of this approach were highly comparable to those obtained by high-performance liquid chromatography. Most importantly, it is cost-effective, operationally simple, and without a complicated sample preparation step. Detecting CMTT in water samples took only 5 min, and the detection of urine samples was completed within 8 min. This simple yet practical SERS approach offers a reliable application prospect for on-site CMTT detection in environmental water and point-of-care monitoring of poisoned patients.
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Soleng A, Edgar KS, von Krogh A, Seljetun KO. Suspected rodenticide exposures in humans and domestic animals: Data from inquiries to the Norwegian Poison Information Centre, 2005-2020. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0278642. [PMID: 36480523 PMCID: PMC9731470 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0278642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Rodent control is necessary to prevent damage and spread of disease, and the most common pesticides used for urban and rural rodent control are anticoagulant rodenticides. The aim of this present study was to present data on suspected exposure to rodenticides in humans and domestic animals in Norway based on inquiries to the Norwegian Poison Information Centre in the 16-year period from 2005 through 2020. A total of 4235 inquiries regarding suspected exposures to rodenticides were registered in the study period. Of these, 1486 inquiries involved humans and 2749 animals. Second generation anticoagulants were involved in 68% of human exposures and 79% of animal exposures. Dogs were the most frequent species involved in the animal exposures with 93% of the inquiries, while cats were second most frequent involved. Around 50% of the human inquiries concerned children at the age of 0-4 years. Only 2% of the cases were in the age group 10-19 years, while adults comprised 35% of the inquiries. Acute poisonings accounted for almost 100% of the inquiries among both humans and animals. The exposure was accidental in 99% of the animal exposures and in 85% of the human exposures. In humans, only 14 inquiries were regarding occupational related accidents. Misdeed or self-inflicted injury accounted for 15% of the human inquiries and were the cause of 79% of the severe poisonings. Severe poisoning was only assessed in 1% of the cases involving children under 5 years. In contrast, 17% of the inquiries concerning adults (≥20 years) were assessed as severe. Subsequently, to prevent human and animal rodenticide exposure, we urge the use of non-chemical methods such as sanitation, rodent proofing (a form of construction which will impede or prevent rodents access to or from a given space or building) and mechanical traps. Restricting the use of rodenticides to professional pest controllers (or other persons with authorisation), reinforcing high quality education of these persons, and securing compliance of the best codes of practice could be advocated to reduce accidental exposure to rodenticides in humans and animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arnulf Soleng
- Department of Pest Control, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
- * E-mail:
| | | | - Anita von Krogh
- Norwegian Poison Information Centre, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
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Broughton RK, Searle KR, Walker LA, Potter ED, Pereira MG, Carter H, Sleep D, Noble DG, Butler A, Johnson AC. Long-term trends of second generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SGARs) show widespread contamination of a bird-eating predator, the Eurasian Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus) in Britain. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2022; 314:120269. [PMID: 36162558 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Revised: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Second generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SGARs) are widely used to control rodents around the world. However, contamination by SGARs is detectable in many non-target species, particularly carnivorous mammals or birds-of-prey that hunt or scavenge on poisoned rodents. The SGAR trophic transfer pathway via rodents and their predators/scavengers appears widespread, but little is known of other pathways of SGAR contamination in non-target wildlife. This is despite the detection of SGARs in predators that do not eat rodents, such as specialist bird-eating hawks. We used a Bayesian modelling framework to examine the extent and spatio-temporal trends of SGAR contamination in the livers of 259 Eurasian Sparrowhawks, a specialist bird-eating raptor, in regions of Britain during 1995-2015. SGARs, predominantly difenacoum, were detected in 81% of birds, with highest concentrations in males and adults. SGAR concentrations in birds were lowest in Scotland and higher or increasing in other regions of Britain, which had a greater arable or urban land cover where SGARs may be widely deployed for rodent control. However, there was no overall trend for Britain, and 97% of SGAR residues in Eurasian Sparrowhawks were below 100 ng/g (wet weight), which is a potential threshold for lethal effects. The results have potential implications for the population decline of Eurasian Sparrowhawks in Britain. Fundamentally, the results indicate an extensive and persistent contamination of the avian trophic transfer pathway on a national scale, where bird-eating raptors and, by extension, their prey appear to be widely exposed to SGARs. Consequently, these findings have implications for wildlife contamination worldwide, wherever these common rodenticides are deployed, as widespread exposure of non-target species can apparently occur via multiple trophic transfer pathways involving birds as well as rodents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard K Broughton
- UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Maclean Building, Benson Lane, Crowmarsh Gifford, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, OX10 8BB, UK.
| | - Kate R Searle
- UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Bush Estate, Penicuik, Midlothian, EH26 0QB, UK
| | - Lee A Walker
- UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Lancaster Environment Centre, Library Avenue, Bailrigg, Lancaster, LA1 4AP, UK
| | - Elaine D Potter
- UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Lancaster Environment Centre, Library Avenue, Bailrigg, Lancaster, LA1 4AP, UK
| | - M Glória Pereira
- UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Lancaster Environment Centre, Library Avenue, Bailrigg, Lancaster, LA1 4AP, UK
| | - Heather Carter
- UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Lancaster Environment Centre, Library Avenue, Bailrigg, Lancaster, LA1 4AP, UK
| | - Darren Sleep
- UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Lancaster Environment Centre, Library Avenue, Bailrigg, Lancaster, LA1 4AP, UK
| | - David G Noble
- British Trust for Ornithology, The Nunnery, Thetford, Norfolk, IP24 2PU, UK
| | - Adam Butler
- BioSS, James Clerk Maxwell Building, King's Buildings, Mayfield Rd, Edinburgh, EH9 3JZ, UK
| | - Andrew C Johnson
- UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Maclean Building, Benson Lane, Crowmarsh Gifford, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, OX10 8BB, UK
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10
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Enantiomer fraction evaluation of the four stereoisomers of second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides in biological matrices with polysaccharide-based chiral selectors and liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2022; 1676:463209. [PMID: 35717864 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2022.463209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2022] [Revised: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Numerous cases of wildlife exposure to five second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides have been reported worldwide, and residues of these chiral pesticides in biological matrices are still quantified by achiral liquid chromatography methods. However, they are a mixture of cis- and trans-diastereomers, thus a mixture of four stereoisomers. Their persistence must be evaluated in a differentiated way in the food chain of concerned predator species in order to reduce the environmental impact. This article presents an evaluation of the chiral selectivity of five polysaccharide-based chiral selectors for the four stereoisomers of bromadiolone, difenacoum, brodifacoum, flocoumafen and difethialone. Different chromatographic parameters, influencing the chiral separation, such as organic modifier (acetonitrile, methanol), percentage of formic acid and water content in the mobile phase are systematically tested for all columns. It was shown that little amount of water added to the acetonitrile mobile phase may influence the retention behaviors between reversed phase and HILIC-like modes, and consequently the enantiomer elution order of the four stereoisomers. On the contrary, reversed phase is always the observed mode for the methanol water mobile phase. A suitable combination of all these parameters is presented for each second-generation anticoagulant rodenticide with a description of the enantioresolution, the enantiomer elution order and the retention times of the respective stereoisomers. A method is validated for all stereoisomers of each second-generation anticoagulant rodenticide with chicken liver and according to an official bioanalytical guideline. As an example, the enantiomer fraction is evaluated in the liver of a raptor species (rodent predator) exposed to bromadiolone and difenacoum. The results showed that only one enantiomer of trans-bromadiolone and one enantiomer of cis-difenacoum is present in hepatic residues, although all four stereoisomers are present in bromadiolone and difenacoum rodenticide baits.
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11
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Rached A, Moriceau MA, Serfaty X, Lefebvre S, Lattard V. Biomarkers Potency to Monitor Non-target Fauna Poisoning by Anticoagulant Rodenticides. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:616276. [PMID: 33426034 PMCID: PMC7785832 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.616276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The widespread use of pesticides to control agricultural pests is a hot topic on the public scene of environmental health. Selective pest control for minimum environmental impact is a major goal of the environmental toxicology field, notably to avoid unintended poisoning in different organisms. Anticoagulant rodenticides cause abnormal blood coagulation process; they have been widely used to control rodents, allowing inadvertent primary and secondary exposure in domestic animals and non-target predatory wildlife species through direct ingestion of rodenticide-containing bait or by consumption of poisoned prey. To report toxic effect, the most common approach is the measurement of liver or plasma residues of anticoagulant rodenticides in dead or intoxicated animals showing clinical symptoms. However, one major challenge is that literature currently lacks a hepatic or plasma concentration threshold value for the differentiation of exposure from toxicity. Regarding the variation in pharmacology properties of anticoagulant rodenticides inter- and intra-species, the dose-response relationship must be defined for each species to prejudge the relative risk of poisoning. Beyond that, biomarkers are a key solution widely used for ecological risk assessment of contaminants. Since anticoagulant rodenticides (AR) have toxic effects at the biochemical level, biomarkers can serve as indicators of toxic exposure. In this sense, toxicological knowledge of anticoagulant rodenticides within organisms is an important tool for defining sensitive, specific, and suitable biomarkers. In this review, we provide an overview of the toxicodynamic and toxicokinetic parameters of anticoagulant rodenticides in different animal species. We examine different types of biomarkers used to characterize and differentiate the exposure and toxic effects of anticoagulant rodenticide, showing the strengths and weaknesses of the assays. Finally, we describe possible new biomarkers and highlight their capabilities.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Virginie Lattard
- USC 1233 RS2GP, VetAgro Sup, INRA, University of Lyon, Marcy l'Etoile, France
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12
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Murray M. Continued Anticoagulant Rodenticide Exposure of Red-tailed Hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) in the Northeastern United States with an Evaluation of Serum for Biomonitoring. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2020; 39:2325-2335. [PMID: 33405327 DOI: 10.1002/etc.4853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Prior studies (2006-2016) in birds of prey admitted to a wildlife clinic in Massachusetts, USA, revealed widespread exposure to second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SGARs) among red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis, RTHAs). Continued monitoring of species for which historic data are available can reveal trends in exposure that aid in evaluating the effectiveness of risk-mitigation measures. While the majority of exposure-monitoring studies utilize liver tissue collected postmortem, antemortem modalities, such as serum analysis, may be desirable for risk assessments in certain populations. However, the sensitivity of serum for detecting anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) is not well studied. Paired liver and serum samples from 43 RTHAs were evaluated from 2017 to 2019. In liver tissue, 100% of birds were positive for ARs, with the SGARs brodifacoum, bromadiolone, and difethialone identified most frequently; 91% of birds had liver residues of 2 to 4 ARs. These findings represent the highest exposure both to ARs overall and to multiple ARs in RTHAs compared to previous studies. All birds diagnosed with AR toxicosis (n = 14) were positive for ARs in serum; however, all subclinically exposed birds (n = 29) were negative in serum. These data show that exposure to SGARs remains widespread in RTHAs in this geographic area. In addition, although serum analysis is not sensitive for detecting sublethal exposures in RTHAs, it can potentially support a diagnosis of AR toxicosis in conjunction with other consistent signs. Environ Toxicol Chem 2020;39:2325-2335. © 2020 SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maureen Murray
- Tufts Wildlife Clinic, Department of Infectious Disease and Global Health, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine at Tufts University, North Grafton, Massachusetts, USA
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13
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Regnery J, Schulz RS, Parrhysius P, Bachtin J, Brinke M, Schäfer S, Reifferscheid G, Friesen A. Heavy rainfall provokes anticoagulant rodenticides' release from baited sewer systems and outdoor surfaces into receiving streams. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 740:139905. [PMID: 32563868 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2020] [Revised: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 05/31/2020] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Prevalent findings of anticoagulant rodenticide (AR) residues in liver tissue of freshwater fish recently emphasized the existence of aquatic exposure pathways. Thus, a comprehensive wastewater treatment plant and surface water monitoring campaign was conducted at two urban catchments in Germany in 2018 and 2019 to investigate potential emission sources of ARs into the aquatic environment. Over several months, the occurrence and fate of all eight ARs authorized in the European Union as well as two pharmaceutical anticoagulants was monitored in a variety of aqueous, solid, and biological environmental matrices during and after widespread sewer baiting with AR-containing bait. As a result, sewer baiting in combined sewer systems, besides outdoor rodent control at the surface, was identified as a substantial contributor of these biocidal active ingredients in the aquatic environment. In conjunction with heavy or prolonged precipitation during bait application in combined sewer systems, a direct link between sewer baiting and AR residues in wastewater treatment plant influent, effluent, and the liver of freshwater fish was established. Moreover, study results confirmed insufficient removal of anticoagulants during conventional wastewater treatment and thus indirect exposure of aquatic organisms in receiving streams via tertiary treated effluents and combined sewer overflows. Nevertheless, further research is required to determine the ecological implications and risks for aquatic organisms as well as fish-eating predators from chronic AR exposure at environmentally relevant concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Regnery
- Department of Biochemistry, Ecotoxicology, Federal Institute of Hydrology, 56068 Koblenz, Germany.
| | - Robert S Schulz
- Department of Biochemistry, Ecotoxicology, Federal Institute of Hydrology, 56068 Koblenz, Germany
| | - Pia Parrhysius
- Department of Biochemistry, Ecotoxicology, Federal Institute of Hydrology, 56068 Koblenz, Germany
| | - Julia Bachtin
- Department of Biochemistry, Ecotoxicology, Federal Institute of Hydrology, 56068 Koblenz, Germany
| | - Marvin Brinke
- Department of Biochemistry, Ecotoxicology, Federal Institute of Hydrology, 56068 Koblenz, Germany
| | - Sabine Schäfer
- Department of Biochemistry, Ecotoxicology, Federal Institute of Hydrology, 56068 Koblenz, Germany
| | - Georg Reifferscheid
- Department of Biochemistry, Ecotoxicology, Federal Institute of Hydrology, 56068 Koblenz, Germany
| | - Anton Friesen
- Section IV 1.2 Biocides, German Environment Agency, 06813 Dessau-Rosslau, Germany
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14
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Seljetun KO, Sandvik M, Vindenes V, Eliassen E, Øiestad EL, Madslien K, Moe L. Comparison of anticoagulant rodenticide concentrations in liver and feces from apparently healthy red foxes. J Vet Diagn Invest 2020; 32:560-564. [PMID: 32476615 DOI: 10.1177/1040638720927365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Exposure of wildlife and domestic animals to anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) is a worldwide concern, but few methods exist to determine residue levels in live animals. Traditional liver detection methods preclude determining exposure in live wildlife. To determine the value of assessing AR exposure by fecal analysis, we compared fecal and liver residues of ARs in the same animals. We collected liver and fecal samples from 40 apparently healthy red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) potentially exposed to ARs, and quantified brodifacoum, bromadiolone, coumatetralyl, difenacoum, difethialone, and flocoumafen residues by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Residues of ARs were detected in 53% of the fecal samples and 83% of the liver samples. We found good concordance between AR residues in feces and liver for coumatetralyl, difenacoum, and difethialone. Bromadiolone occurred in significantly greater frequency in livers compared to feces, but no significant difference in concentration between feces and liver in individual foxes could be detected. Brodifacoum displayed a significant difference in concentration and occurrence of positive samples between liver and feces. Our findings demonstrate that fecal analysis of ARs provides a feasible and valuable non-lethal means of determine AR exposure in live wildlife.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin O Seljetun
- Department of Companion Animal Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), Oslo, Norway (Seljetun, Moe).,Norwegian Poisons Information Centre, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway (Seljetun).,Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Oslo, Norway (Sandvik, Madslien).,Department of Forensic Sciences, Division of Laboratory Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway (Vindenes, Eliassen).,Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine (Vindenes) and School of Pharmacy (Øiestad), University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Morten Sandvik
- Department of Companion Animal Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), Oslo, Norway (Seljetun, Moe).,Norwegian Poisons Information Centre, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway (Seljetun).,Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Oslo, Norway (Sandvik, Madslien).,Department of Forensic Sciences, Division of Laboratory Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway (Vindenes, Eliassen).,Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine (Vindenes) and School of Pharmacy (Øiestad), University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Vigdis Vindenes
- Department of Companion Animal Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), Oslo, Norway (Seljetun, Moe).,Norwegian Poisons Information Centre, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway (Seljetun).,Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Oslo, Norway (Sandvik, Madslien).,Department of Forensic Sciences, Division of Laboratory Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway (Vindenes, Eliassen).,Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine (Vindenes) and School of Pharmacy (Øiestad), University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Elin Eliassen
- Department of Companion Animal Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), Oslo, Norway (Seljetun, Moe).,Norwegian Poisons Information Centre, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway (Seljetun).,Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Oslo, Norway (Sandvik, Madslien).,Department of Forensic Sciences, Division of Laboratory Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway (Vindenes, Eliassen).,Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine (Vindenes) and School of Pharmacy (Øiestad), University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Elisabeth L Øiestad
- Department of Companion Animal Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), Oslo, Norway (Seljetun, Moe).,Norwegian Poisons Information Centre, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway (Seljetun).,Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Oslo, Norway (Sandvik, Madslien).,Department of Forensic Sciences, Division of Laboratory Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway (Vindenes, Eliassen).,Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine (Vindenes) and School of Pharmacy (Øiestad), University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Knut Madslien
- Department of Companion Animal Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), Oslo, Norway (Seljetun, Moe).,Norwegian Poisons Information Centre, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway (Seljetun).,Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Oslo, Norway (Sandvik, Madslien).,Department of Forensic Sciences, Division of Laboratory Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway (Vindenes, Eliassen).,Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine (Vindenes) and School of Pharmacy (Øiestad), University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Lars Moe
- Department of Companion Animal Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), Oslo, Norway (Seljetun, Moe).,Norwegian Poisons Information Centre, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway (Seljetun).,Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Oslo, Norway (Sandvik, Madslien).,Department of Forensic Sciences, Division of Laboratory Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway (Vindenes, Eliassen).,Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine (Vindenes) and School of Pharmacy (Øiestad), University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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15
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Fourel I, Benoit E, Lattard V. Enantiomeric fraction evaluation of the four stereoisomers of difethialone in biological matrices of rat by two enantioselective liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry methods: Chiral stationary phase or derivatization. J Chromatogr A 2020; 1618:460848. [PMID: 31932088 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2019.460848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2019] [Revised: 12/26/2019] [Accepted: 12/31/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The need for the control of rodent populations with anticoagulant rodenticides remains actual, and enantioselective analytical methods are mandatory to understand ecotoxicity issues of those chiral pesticides. This study presents two enantioselective methods to achieve the residue levels and differentiated persistence of the four stereoisomers of difethialone (called in this work E1-trans, E2-cis, E3-cis and E4-trans), which is one of the most toxic second generation anticoagulant rodenticide. Their enantiomeric fraction evaluation in biological matrices of rats was determined by two LC-MS/MS methods. The first one (chiral-LC-MS/MS) combined a chiral column employed in reversed-phase mode (with acetonitrile-water mobile phase) to be compatible with mass spectrometry detection. The second one was also a LC-MS/MS method but with a reversed phase column after a derivatization step with (1S)-(-)-camphanic chloride. Extraction process combined Solid-Liquid extraction and sorbent cartridges. The methods were fully validated. The chiral column was chosen as a reference method for our laboratory because it was quicker and cheaper, and enantioresolution and sensitivity were better. This chiral-LC-MS/MS method was used to measure the enantiomeric fraction of the four stereoisomers of difethialone in rodent biological matrices (liver, plasma, blood and feces) of female rats treated with 3.5 mg/kg of difethialone. The results showed that metabolism is not the same for all the stereoisomers: cis-E3-difethialone was the most persistent, and E4-trans-difethialone was the most quickly eliminated. This chiral-LC-MS/MS method will be used to study the pharmacokinetics of the four stereoisomers of difethialone, and for ecotoxicological surveillance to evaluate the specific persistence of each stereoisomer of difethialone in case of secondary exposure of wildlife non-target species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle Fourel
- USC 1233 RS2GP, INRA, VetAgro Sup, Univ Lyon, F-69280 Marcy l'Etoile, France.
| | - Etienne Benoit
- USC 1233 RS2GP, INRA, VetAgro Sup, Univ Lyon, F-69280 Marcy l'Etoile, France
| | - Virginie Lattard
- USC 1233 RS2GP, INRA, VetAgro Sup, Univ Lyon, F-69280 Marcy l'Etoile, France
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16
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Papini S, de Masi E, Nakagawa LE, de Oliveira JCB. Rodenticide efficacy in sewers in São Paulo, Brazil. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2019; 26:35270-35274. [PMID: 31741277 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-019-06802-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2019] [Accepted: 10/16/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Rodents infest urban environments, causing damage and acting as vectors for disease transmission. Currently, anticoagulants are the most widely used chemical rodenticides, and their extensive and widespread use can contaminate the environment. To ensure effectiveness and avoid accumulation of rodent baits in the environment, it is important to evaluate how long rodent baits maintain their palatability and efficacy. In rodent control programs, rodent baits are placed in locations such as sewers, but after a few days, baits appear altered, causing doubts about the control efficacy. For this reason, baits are replaced periodically, which increases costs and generation of chemical waste. The objective of this study was to evaluate the palatability and efficacy of commercial paraffin-type rodent bait blocks placed in sewers in São Paulo City over a period of 90 days. Bait blocks were placed in sewers and collected after 30, 60, and 90 days. Additionally, in a laboratory two-choice test, wild-caught urban Norway rats were offered 40-60 g of bait and an equal volume of standard rat pellets. The amount of bait and rat pellet consumed was registered, the palatability was calculated, and the efficacy was measured as the percentage mortality over 14 days. The results showed that, even when they had an altered appearance, bait blocks remained palatable to the rats and were effective after at least 90 days. Leaving bait blocks for longer periods could be an effective strategy for reducing costs and could help to ensure the control of urban rodents in an environmentally sustainable way.
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Affiliation(s)
- Solange Papini
- Municipality of São Paulo, Municipal Heath Secretary, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Eduardo de Masi
- Municipality of São Paulo, Municipal Heath Secretary, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Lia E Nakagawa
- Biological Institute, Conselheiro Rodrigues Alves Avenue 1252, Vila Mariana, São Paulo, SP, 04014-900, Brazil.
| | - Jennifer C B de Oliveira
- Biological Institute, Conselheiro Rodrigues Alves Avenue 1252, Vila Mariana, São Paulo, SP, 04014-900, Brazil
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17
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Hong SY, Morrissey C, Lin HS, Lin KS, Lin WL, Yao CT, Lin TE, Chan FT, Sun YH. Frequent detection of anticoagulant rodenticides in raptors sampled in Taiwan reflects government rodent control policy. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 691:1051-1058. [PMID: 31326797 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2019] [Revised: 07/04/2019] [Accepted: 07/05/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) are known to cause extensive secondary exposure in top predators in Europe and North America, but there remains a paucity of data in Asia. In this study, we collected 221 liver samples from 21 raptor species in Taiwan between 2010 and 2018. Most birds were recovered from rescue organizations, but some free-ranging individuals were obtained from bird-strike prevention measures at airports. ARs were detected in 10 species and more than half of the total samples. Common rodent-eating Black-winged Kites (Elanus caeruleus) had the highest prevalence (89.2%) and highest average sum concentration (0.211 ± 0.219 mg/kg), which was similar between free-ranging birds at airports and injured birds from rescue organizations. Scavenging Black Kites (Milvus migrans) and snake-eating Crested Serpent-eagles (Spilornis cheela) had the second highest prevalence or sum concentration, respectively. Seven different AR compounds were detected, of which brodifacoum was the most common and had the highest average concentration, followed by flocoumafen and bromadiolone. The frequency of occurrence in the three most numerous species (Black-winged Kite, Crested Goshawk [Accipiter trivirgatus], and Collared Scops-owl [Otus lettia]) was significantly higher in autumn than summer, which is consistent with the timing of the Taiwanese government's supply of free ARs to farmers. Regional differences in the detection of individual compounds also tended to reflect differences in human population density and use patterns (in agriculture or urban-dominated environments). Clinical poisoning was confirmed in Black Kites with sum concentrations as low as 0.026 mg/kg; however, further study of interspecific differences in AR sensitivity and potential population effects are needed. In addition, continued monitoring remains important given the Taiwanese government has modified their farmland rodent control policy to gradually reduce free AR supplies since 2015.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiao-Yu Hong
- Institute of Wildlife Conservation, College of Veterinary Medicine, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung 912, Taiwan
| | - Christy Morrissey
- Department of Biology and School of Environment and Sustainability, University of Saskatchewan, 112 Science Place, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5E2, Canada
| | - Hui-Shan Lin
- Institute of Wildlife Conservation, College of Veterinary Medicine, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung 912, Taiwan
| | | | - Wen-Loung Lin
- Taichung Wildlife Rescue Group, Taichung 411, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Te Yao
- Endemic Species Research Institute, Nantou 552, Taiwan
| | - Te-En Lin
- Endemic Species Research Institute, Nantou 552, Taiwan
| | - Fang-Tse Chan
- Endemic Species Research Institute, Nantou 552, Taiwan
| | - Yuan-Hsun Sun
- Institute of Wildlife Conservation, College of Veterinary Medicine, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung 912, Taiwan.
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18
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PREVALENCE OF ANTICOAGULANT RODENTICIDES IN FECES OF WILD RED FOXES (VULPES VULPES) IN NORWAY. J Wildl Dis 2019. [DOI: 10.7589/2019-01-027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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19
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Stöck M, Reisch F, Elmeros M, Gabriel D, Kloas W, Kreuz E, Lassen P, Esther A. The potential of VKORC1 polymorphisms in Mustelidae for evolving anticoagulant resistance through selection along the food chain. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0221706. [PMID: 31465484 PMCID: PMC6715177 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0221706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2019] [Accepted: 08/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In response to strong selection, new mutations can arise quickly and sweep through populations, particularly, if survival and reproduction depend on certain allele copies for adaptation to rapidly changing environments, like resistance against deadly diseases or strong toxins. Since the 1950s, resistance to anticoagulant rodenticides in several rodents has emerged through single nucleotide mutations in the vitamin-K-epoxid-reductase-complex-subunit-1 (VKORC1) gene, often located in its exon 3. Detection of high prevalence and concentrations of anticoagulant rodenticides in non-target vertebrates, including carnivorous Mustelidae, let us assume that secondary exposure by feeding on poisoned prey may also cause selection along the food chain and we hypothesized that VKORC1-based resistance might also have evolved in rodents' predators. Using newly-developed mustelid-specific primers for direct sequencing of genomic DNA, we studied VKORC1-DNA-polymorphisms in 115 mustelids of five species (Martes martes, M. foina, Mustela nivalis, M. erminea, M. putorius), obtained from northern Denmark, yielding six sites with nonsynonymous and several synonymous amino acid polymorphisms in exon 3. Comparison of these VKORC1-genotypes with hepatic rodenticide residues (obtained by HPLC combined with fluorescence or mass spectrometry) in 83 individuals (except M. martes), using generalized linear models, suggested that anticoagulant levels depended on species and specific polymorphisms. Although most VKORC-1 polymorphisms may present standing genetic variation, some are situated in resistance-mediating membrane parts of the VKORC1-encoded protein, and might be a result of selection due to exposure to anticoagulant poisons. Our new molecular markers might allow detecting indirect effects of anticoagulant rodenticides on rodent predator populations in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Stöck
- Department of Ecophysiology and Aquaculture, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Berlin, Germany
| | - Florian Reisch
- Department of Ecophysiology and Aquaculture, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Berlin, Germany
- Institute of Biochemistry, Universitätsmedizin Berlin Charité, Berlin, Germany
| | - Morten Elmeros
- Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Rønde, Denmark
| | - Doreen Gabriel
- Institute for Crop and Soil Science, Julius Kühn Institute, Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Werner Kloas
- Department of Ecophysiology and Aquaculture, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Berlin, Germany
| | - Eva Kreuz
- Department of Ecophysiology and Aquaculture, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Berlin, Germany
| | - Pia Lassen
- Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Alexandra Esther
- Institute for Plant Protection in Horticulture and Forests, Julius Kühn Institute, Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, Münster, Germany
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Serieys LEK, Bishop J, Okes N, Broadfield J, Winterton DJ, Poppenga RH, Viljoen S, Wayne RK, O'Riain MJ. Widespread anticoagulant poison exposure in predators in a rapidly growing South African city. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 666:581-590. [PMID: 30807948 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2018] [Revised: 02/07/2019] [Accepted: 02/07/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) are used worldwide to control rodent populations. ARs bioaccumulate across trophic levels and threaten non-target wildlife. We investigated the prevalence of AR exposure in seven predator species in the rapidly developing Greater Cape Town region of South Africa - a mosaic of natural, urban, and agricultural areas within a global biodiversity hotspot. We focused sampling on caracals (Caracal caracal, n = 28) as part of a larger caracal ecology study, but also opportunistically sampled Cape Clawless otters (Aonyx capensis, n = 9), large-spotted genets (Genetta tigrina, n = 4), honey badger (Mellivora capensis, n = 1), water mongoose (Atilax paludinosus, n = 1), small gray mongoose (Galerella pulverulenta, n = 1), and Cape Eagle owl (Bubo capensis, n = 1). We tested livers from all species, and blood from ten caracals, for eight AR compounds to assess prevalence and amount of exposure for each compound. We used generalized linear models to test spatial, demographic, and seasonal risk factors for ten measures of AR exposure in caracals. We detected at least one of the four most toxic AR compounds in six species. Exposure was high for caracals (92%) and all species combined (81%). For caracals, proximity to vineyards was the most important AR exposure risk factor. Vineyards in Cape Town do not use ARs to protect their vines but do host commercial hospitality structures where ARs are used. Vineyards may thus link caracals that forage within vineyards to the rat poisons used in and around their commercial structures. Residue levels were unexpected in large-spotted genets and Cape Clawless otters, suggesting invertebrate vectors. ARs may present a cryptic threat to populations already vulnerable to increasing habitat loss, vehicle collisions, poachers and fire. Targeted mitigation should include a mix of environmentally responsible policies that reduce AR use, particularly in areas near wildlife habitat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurel E K Serieys
- Institute for Communities and Wildlife in Africa, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Private Bag X3, Rondebosch, Cape Town 7701, South Africa; Cape Leopard Trust, P.O. Box 31139, Tokai, Cape Town 7966, South Africa; Environmental Studies, University of California, Santa Cruz, Campus Mail Stop, 1153 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA, USA.
| | - Jacqueline Bishop
- Institute for Communities and Wildlife in Africa, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Private Bag X3, Rondebosch, Cape Town 7701, South Africa
| | - Nicola Okes
- Institute for Communities and Wildlife in Africa, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Private Bag X3, Rondebosch, Cape Town 7701, South Africa
| | - Joleen Broadfield
- Cape Leopard Trust, P.O. Box 31139, Tokai, Cape Town 7966, South Africa
| | - Deborah Jean Winterton
- Cape Research Centre, South African National Parks, P.O. Box 216, Steenberg 7947, South Africa
| | - Robert H Poppenga
- Center for Animal Health and Food Safety, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Storme Viljoen
- Institute for Communities and Wildlife in Africa, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Private Bag X3, Rondebosch, Cape Town 7701, South Africa
| | - Robert K Wayne
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
| | - M Justin O'Riain
- Institute for Communities and Wildlife in Africa, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Private Bag X3, Rondebosch, Cape Town 7701, South Africa
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Kotthoff M, Rüdel H, Jürling H, Severin K, Hennecke S, Friesen A, Koschorreck J. First evidence of anticoagulant rodenticides in fish and suspended particulate matter: spatial and temporal distribution in German freshwater aquatic systems. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2019; 26:7315-7325. [PMID: 29497938 PMCID: PMC6447514 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-018-1385-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2017] [Accepted: 01/24/2018] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) have been used for decades for rodent control worldwide. Research on the exposure of the environment and accumulation of these active substances in biota has been focused on terrestrial food webs, but few data are available on the impact of ARs on aquatic systems and water organisms. To fill this gap, we analyzed liver samples of bream (Abramis brama) and co-located suspended particulate matter (SPM) from the German Environmental Specimen Bank (ESB). An appropriate method was developed for the determination of eight different ARs, including first- and second-generation ARs, in fish liver and SPM. Applying this method to bream liver samples from 17 and 18 sampling locations of the years 2011 and 2015, respectively, five ARs were found at levels above limits of quantifications (LOQs, 0.2 to 2 μg kg-1). For 2015, brodifacoum was detected in 88% of the samples with a maximum concentration of 12.5 μg kg-1. Moreover, difenacoum, bromadiolone, difethialone, and flocoumafen were detected in some samples above LOQ. In contrast, no first generation AR was detected in the ESB samples. In SPM, only bromadiolone could be detected in 56% of the samples at levels up to 9.24 μg kg-1. A temporal trend analysis of bream liver from two sampling locations over a period of up to 23 years revealed a significant trend for brodifacoum at one of the sampling locations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Kotthoff
- Department Environmental and Food Analysis, Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology IME, Auf dem Aberg 1, 57392, Schmallenberg, Germany.
| | - Heinz Rüdel
- Department Environmental Specimen Bank and Elemental Analysis, Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology IME, Auf dem Aberg 1, 57392, Schmallenberg, Germany
| | - Heinrich Jürling
- Department Environmental and Food Analysis, Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology IME, Auf dem Aberg 1, 57392, Schmallenberg, Germany
| | - Kevin Severin
- Department Environmental and Food Analysis, Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology IME, Auf dem Aberg 1, 57392, Schmallenberg, Germany
| | - Stephan Hennecke
- Department Environmental and Food Analysis, Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology IME, Auf dem Aberg 1, 57392, Schmallenberg, Germany
| | - Anton Friesen
- German Environment Agency (Umweltbundesamt), 06813, Dessau-Rosslau, Germany
| | - Jan Koschorreck
- German Environment Agency (Umweltbundesamt), 06813, Dessau-Rosslau, Germany
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22
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Elmeros M, Bossi R, Christensen TK, Kjær LJ, Lassen P, Topping CJ. Exposure of non-target small mammals to anticoagulant rodenticide during chemical rodent control operations. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2019; 26:6133-6140. [PMID: 30617892 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-018-04064-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2018] [Accepted: 12/20/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The extensive use of anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) results in widespread unintentional exposure of non-target rodents and secondary poisoning of predators despite regulatory measures to manage and reduce exposure risk. To elucidate on the potential vectoring of ARs into surrounding habitats by non-target small mammals, we determined bromadiolone prevalence and concentrations in rodents and shrews near bait boxes during an experimental application of the poison for 2 weeks. Overall, bromadiolone was detected in 12.6% of all small rodents and insectivores. Less than 20 m from bait boxes, 48.6% of small mammals had detectable levels of bromadiolone. The prevalence of poisoned small mammals decreased with distance to bait boxes, but bromadiolone concentration in the rodenticide positive individuals did not. Poisoned small mammals were trapped up to 89 m from bait boxes. Bromadiolone concentrations in yellow-necked mice (Apodemus flavicollis) were higher than concentrations in bank vole (Myodes glareolus), field vole (Microtus agrestis), harvest mouse (Micromys minutus), and common shrew (Sorex araneus). Our field trials documents that chemical rodent control results in widespread exposure of non-target small mammals and that AR poisoned small mammals disperse away from bating sites to become available to predators and scavengers in large areas of the landscape. The results suggest that the unintentional secondary exposure of predators and scavengers is an unavoidable consequence of chemical rodent control outside buildings and infrastructures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morten Elmeros
- Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Grenåvej 14, DK-8410, Rønde, Denmark.
| | - Rossana Bossi
- Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, DK-4000, Roskilde, Denmark
| | | | - Lene Jung Kjær
- Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Grenåvej 14, DK-8410, Rønde, Denmark
- National Veterinary Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Kemitorvet, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Pia Lassen
- Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, DK-4000, Roskilde, Denmark
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23
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Sainsbury KA, Shore RF, Schofield H, Croose E, Pereira MG, Sleep D, Kitchener AC, Hantke G, McDonald RA. Long-term increase in secondary exposure to anticoagulant rodenticides in European polecats Mustela putorius in Great Britain. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2018; 236:689-698. [PMID: 29438955 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2017] [Revised: 02/02/2018] [Accepted: 02/02/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
As a result of legal protection and population recovery, European polecats (Mustela putorius) in Great Britain are expanding into areas associated with greater usage of second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SGARs). We analysed polecat livers collected from road casualties from 2013 to 2016 for residues of five SGARs. We related variation in residues to polecat traits and potential exposure pathways, by analysing stable isotopes of carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) in their whiskers. 54 of 68 (79%) polecats had detectable residues of at least one SGAR. Bromadiolone (71%) was the most frequently detected compound, followed by difenacoum (53%) and brodifacoum (35%). Applying historical limits of detection to allow comparison between these new data and previous assessments, we show that in the 25 years from 1992 to 2016 inclusive, the rate of detection of SGARs in polecats in Britain has increased by a factor of 1.7. The probability of SGAR detection was positively related to increasing values of δ15N, suggesting that polecats feeding at a higher trophic level were more likely to be exposed. Total concentrations of SGARs in polecats with detectable residues were higher in polecats collected in arable compared to pastoral habitats, and in the west compared to the east of Britain. The number of compounds detected and total concentrations of SGARs increased with polecat age. There was no evidence of regional or seasonal variation in the probability of detecting SGARs, suggesting that the current risk of exposure to SGARs does not vary seasonally and has increased (from that in the 1990s) throughout the polecat's range. We recommend quantification of current practices in rodenticide usage, particularly in the light of recent regulatory changes, to enable assessment and mitigation of the risks of secondary exposure to rodenticides in non-target wildlife.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine A Sainsbury
- Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn, Cornwall, TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Richard F Shore
- NERC Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Lancaster Environment Centre, Library Avenue, Bailrigg, Lancaster, LA1 4AP, UK
| | - Henry Schofield
- The Vincent Wildlife Trust, 3 & 4 Bronsil Courtyard, Eastnor, Ledbury, Herefordshire, HR8 1EP, UK
| | - Elizabeth Croose
- The Vincent Wildlife Trust, 3 & 4 Bronsil Courtyard, Eastnor, Ledbury, Herefordshire, HR8 1EP, UK
| | - M Gloria Pereira
- NERC Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Lancaster Environment Centre, Library Avenue, Bailrigg, Lancaster, LA1 4AP, UK
| | - Darren Sleep
- NERC Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Lancaster Environment Centre, Library Avenue, Bailrigg, Lancaster, LA1 4AP, UK
| | - Andrew C Kitchener
- National Museums Scotland, Chambers Street, Edinburgh, EH1 1JF, UK; Institute of Geography, School of Geosciences, University of Edinburgh, Drummond Street, Edinburgh, EH8 9XP, UK
| | - Georg Hantke
- National Museums Scotland, Chambers Street, Edinburgh, EH1 1JF, UK
| | - Robbie A McDonald
- Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn, Cornwall, TR10 9FE, UK.
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