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Xu S, Gao S, An Y. Research progress of engineering microbial cell factories for pigment production. Biotechnol Adv 2023; 65:108150. [PMID: 37044266 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2023.108150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2022] [Revised: 03/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/14/2023]
Abstract
Pigments are widely used in people's daily life, such as food additives, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, textiles, etc. In recent years, the natural pigments produced by microorganisms have attracted increased attention because these processes cannot be affected by seasons like the plant extraction methods, and can also avoid the environmental pollution problems caused by chemical synthesis. Synthetic biology and metabolic engineering have been used to construct and optimize metabolic pathways for production of natural pigments in cellular factories. Building microbial cell factories for synthesis of natural pigments has many advantages, including well-defined genetic background of the strains, high-density and rapid culture of cells, etc. Until now, the technical means about engineering microbial cell factories for pigment production and metabolic regulation processes have not been systematically analyzed and summarized. Therefore, the studies about construction, modification and regulation of synthetic pathways for microbial synthesis of pigments in recent years have been reviewed, aiming to provide an up-to-date summary of engineering strategies for microbial synthesis of natural pigments including carotenoids, melanins, riboflavins, azomycetes and quinones. This review should provide new ideas for further improving microbial production of natural pigments in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shumin Xu
- College of Biosciences and Biotechnology, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, China; College of Food Science, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, China
| | - Song Gao
- College of Biosciences and Biotechnology, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, China
| | - Yingfeng An
- College of Biosciences and Biotechnology, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, China; College of Food Science, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, China; Shenyang Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources Mining and Molecular Breeding, Shenyang, China; Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Biotechnology, Shenyang, China.
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2
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Characterization of Physicochemical Properties of Melanin Produced by Gluconobacter oxydans FBFS 97. FERMENTATION 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/fermentation8110574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study aimed to characterize melanin pigment extracted from Gluconobacter oxydans FBFS 97. After 14 days of culture at 28 °C in GY (glucose and yeast extract) liquid-state medium, G. oxydans FBFS97 produce the maximum melanin, up to about 12–15 mg/L. The physicochemical characteristics of the extracted melanin showed an ability to dissolve in 1 mol/L NaOH or 1 mol/L KOH, and insolubility in water and most organic solvents, such as chloroform and petroleum ether. The extracted melanin was confirmed to be exact melanin by ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, thin-layer chromatography, elemental analysis, and scanning electron microscopy. The UV-visible spectrum of G. oxydans FBFS97 exhibited a maximum absorption peak at 230 nm. Extracted melanin demonstrated significant free radical-scavenging activity by DPPH and ABTS methods. The IC50 value of the extracted melanin for scavenging 50% DPPH radicals was 36.94 μg/mL, and the IC50 value of antioxidant activity for ABTS was 4.06 μg/mL. Hence, G. oxydans FBFS97 has the potential to be a new candidate for melanin production.
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Ammanagi A, C T S, R K, Badiger A, Ramaraj V. Functional and Structural Characterization of Melanin from Brevibacillus invocatus Strain IBA. DOKLADY BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES : PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE USSR, BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES SECTIONS 2021; 500:159-169. [PMID: 34731382 DOI: 10.1134/s001249662105001x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Revised: 05/18/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Melanin is a polyphenol or indolic dark brown to black pigment of macromolecules that has a variety of biological functions including UV defence, desiccation, and oxidation. The pigment is classified as a heterogenic polymer. Analytical characterization of melanin can be difficult due to its heterogeneity. In this study, a newly isolated strain of Brevibacillus invocatus strain IBA capable of extracellular melanin production was grown on nutrient agar and the bacteria were molecularly identified. Chemical and physical methods were used to characterize melanin. The solubility of melanin in organic and inorganic solvents was used to characterise it chemically. According to the UV-visible wavelength scan, physical characterization revealed absorption in the UV region 200 to 300 nm, but declining towards the visible region. Functional group identification of extracted melanin was carried out by FTIR with different stretching vibrations at 3226, 2920, 2849, 1628, 1555, 1340 cm-1 and weak absorption bands at 1104 and 1015 cm-1. Structural characterization was carried by SEM of extracted melanin which showed irregular shape and size at different magnifications. The crystallinity of melanin was studied using X-ray crystallography, with a lattice parameter of approximately a = 8.54. The XRD spectrum of the extracted melanin crystallographic pattern revealed peaks at 2θ = 27.32, 31.66, 45.41, 53.84, 53.84, 56.44, 66.18, 73.10, 75.26, and 83.94, which correspond to reflections (111), (200), (220), (311), (222), (400), (331), (420), and (422), respectively. The analytical methods available for melanin analysis are largely complementary, providing detailed knowledge required to draw reliable conclusions about the sample under investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avinash Ammanagi
- Department of Studies in Biotechnology and Microbiology, Karnatak University, Dharwad, Karnataka, India.
| | - Shivasharana C T
- Department of Studies in Biotechnology and Microbiology, Karnatak University, Dharwad, Karnataka, India.
| | - Krishnaveni R
- Department of Microbiology Vijayanagara Sri Krishna Devaraya University, Ballari, Karnataka, India
| | - Abhijeeth Badiger
- Department of Biotechnology, Sri Dharmasthala Manjunatheshwara College, Ujire, Karnataka, India
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Parvulescu MJS, Martin KL, Mogilevsky P, Patel TA, Street DP, Gupta MK, Hung CS, Dickerson MB. Biomorphic Ceramics: Synthesis and Characterization of Preceramic Polymer-Modified Melanin. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2021; 7:3103-3113. [PMID: 34100582 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.1c00265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Recent efforts have demonstrated that the morphology of ceramics can be manipulated to control both their deformation mechanism and mechanical performance. However, precise control of the ceramic nanostructure is still difficult to achieve. Biotemplating, leading to biomorphic materials, provides a facile route to manipulate the nanostructure of the resulting materials, and the use of melanin as a coating provides a new route to biotemplated materials. Melanin is underutilized for structural materials partly due to the cost of procuring it from natural sources and the inability to control the shape and sizes of melanin particles. Taking a combined synthetic biology and chemical synthesis approach, we report the melanization of Escherichia coli and its subsequent silanization and functionalization with preceramic polymers to make novel biomorphic silicon-based ceramic materials. Graft-to and graft-from reactions were used to append preceramic polymers to the melanin, followed by pyrolysis under argon. Samples were analyzed by FTIR, XRD, XPS, and TEM and found to retain the shape and size of the original cells with high fidelity. The homogeneity of coverage and yield of the resulting ceramic materials depended on the type of grafting reaction. This work provides a promising proof-of-concept that bacterial-templated ceramics can be readily made and opens a host of possibilities for further studies and applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria J S Parvulescu
- Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright- Patterson Air Force Base 45433, Ohio, United States.,UES Inc., 4401 Dayton-Xenia Rd, Dayton 45432, Ohio, United States
| | - Kara L Martin
- Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright- Patterson Air Force Base 45433, Ohio, United States.,UES Inc., 4401 Dayton-Xenia Rd, Dayton 45432, Ohio, United States
| | - Pavel Mogilevsky
- Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright- Patterson Air Force Base 45433, Ohio, United States.,UES Inc., 4401 Dayton-Xenia Rd, Dayton 45432, Ohio, United States
| | - Tulsi A Patel
- Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright- Patterson Air Force Base 45433, Ohio, United States.,National Research Council Research Associate Program, National Academies of Science, 500 Fifth Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20001, United States
| | - Dayton P Street
- Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright- Patterson Air Force Base 45433, Ohio, United States.,National Research Council Research Associate Program, National Academies of Science, 500 Fifth Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20001, United States
| | - Maneesh K Gupta
- Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright- Patterson Air Force Base 45433, Ohio, United States
| | - Chia-Suei Hung
- Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright- Patterson Air Force Base 45433, Ohio, United States
| | - Matthew B Dickerson
- Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright- Patterson Air Force Base 45433, Ohio, United States
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Singh S, Nimse SB, Mathew DE, Dhimmar A, Sahastrabudhe H, Gajjar A, Ghadge VA, Kumar P, Shinde PB. Microbial melanin: Recent advances in biosynthesis, extraction, characterization, and applications. Biotechnol Adv 2021; 53:107773. [PMID: 34022328 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2021.107773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Revised: 05/12/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Melanin is a common name for a group of biopolymers with the dominance of potential applications in medical sciences, cosmeceutical, bioremediation, and bioelectronic applications. The broad distribution of these pigments suggests their role to combat abiotic and biotic stresses in diverse life forms. Biosynthesis of melanin in fungi and bacteria occurs by oxidative polymerization of phenolic compounds predominantly by two pathways, 1,8-dihydroxynaphthalene [DHN] or 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine [DOPA], resulting in different kinds of melanin, i.e., eumelanin, pheomelanin, allomelanin, pyomelanin, and neuromelanin. The enzymes responsible for melanin synthesis belong mainly to tyrosinase, laccase, and polyketide synthase families. Studies have shown that manipulating culture parameters, combined with recombinant technology, can increase melanin yield for large-scale production. Despite significant efforts, its low solubility has limited the development of extraction procedures, and heterogeneous structural complexity has impaired structural elucidation, restricting effective exploitation of their biotechnological potential. Innumerable studies have been performed on melanin pigments from different taxa of life in order to advance the knowledge about melanin pigments for their efficient utilization in diverse applications. These studies prompted an urgent need for a comprehensive review on melanin pigments isolated from microorganisms, so that such review encompassing biosynthesis, bioproduction, characterization, and potential applications would help researchers from diverse background to understand the importance of microbial melanins and to utilize the information from the review for planning studies on melanin. With this aim in mind, the present report compares conventional and modern ideas for environment-friendly extraction procedures for melanin. Furthermore, the characteristic parameters to differentiate between eumelanin and pheomelanin are also mentioned, followed by their biotechnological applications forming the basis of industrial utilization. There lies a massive scope of work to circumvent the bottlenecks in their isolation and structural elucidation methodologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanju Singh
- Natural Products & Green Chemistry Division, CSIR-Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute (CSIR-CSMCRI), Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Bhavnagar 364002, Gujarat, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India
| | - Satish B Nimse
- Institute of Applied Chemistry and Department of Chemistry, Hallym University, Chuncheon 200702, Republic of Korea
| | - Doniya Elze Mathew
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India; Applied Phycology and Biotechnology Division, CSIR-Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute (CSIR-CSMCRI), Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Bhavnagar 364002, Gujarat, India
| | - Asmita Dhimmar
- Natural Products & Green Chemistry Division, CSIR-Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute (CSIR-CSMCRI), Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Bhavnagar 364002, Gujarat, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India
| | - Harshal Sahastrabudhe
- Natural Products & Green Chemistry Division, CSIR-Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute (CSIR-CSMCRI), Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Bhavnagar 364002, Gujarat, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India
| | - Apexa Gajjar
- Natural Products & Green Chemistry Division, CSIR-Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute (CSIR-CSMCRI), Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Bhavnagar 364002, Gujarat, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India
| | - Vishal A Ghadge
- Natural Products & Green Chemistry Division, CSIR-Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute (CSIR-CSMCRI), Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Bhavnagar 364002, Gujarat, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India
| | - Pankaj Kumar
- Natural Products & Green Chemistry Division, CSIR-Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute (CSIR-CSMCRI), Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Bhavnagar 364002, Gujarat, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India
| | - Pramod B Shinde
- Natural Products & Green Chemistry Division, CSIR-Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute (CSIR-CSMCRI), Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Bhavnagar 364002, Gujarat, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India.
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Muggia L, Ametrano CG, Sterflinger K, Tesei D. An Overview of Genomics, Phylogenomics and Proteomics Approaches in Ascomycota. Life (Basel) 2020; 10:E356. [PMID: 33348904 PMCID: PMC7765829 DOI: 10.3390/life10120356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Revised: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 12/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Fungi are among the most successful eukaryotes on Earth: they have evolved strategies to survive in the most diverse environments and stressful conditions and have been selected and exploited for multiple aims by humans. The characteristic features intrinsic of Fungi have required evolutionary changes and adaptations at deep molecular levels. Omics approaches, nowadays including genomics, metagenomics, phylogenomics, transcriptomics, metabolomics, and proteomics have enormously advanced the way to understand fungal diversity at diverse taxonomic levels, under changeable conditions and in still under-investigated environments. These approaches can be applied both on environmental communities and on individual organisms, either in nature or in axenic culture and have led the traditional morphology-based fungal systematic to increasingly implement molecular-based approaches. The advent of next-generation sequencing technologies was key to boost advances in fungal genomics and proteomics research. Much effort has also been directed towards the development of methodologies for optimal genomic DNA and protein extraction and separation. To date, the amount of proteomics investigations in Ascomycetes exceeds those carried out in any other fungal group. This is primarily due to the preponderance of their involvement in plant and animal diseases and multiple industrial applications, and therefore the need to understand the biological basis of the infectious process to develop mechanisms for biologic control, as well as to detect key proteins with roles in stress survival. Here we chose to present an overview as much comprehensive as possible of the major advances, mainly of the past decade, in the fields of genomics (including phylogenomics) and proteomics of Ascomycota, focusing particularly on those reporting on opportunistic pathogenic, extremophilic, polyextremotolerant and lichenized fungi. We also present a review of the mostly used genome sequencing technologies and methods for DNA sequence and protein analyses applied so far for fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Muggia
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, 34127 Trieste, Italy
| | - Claudio G. Ametrano
- Grainger Bioinformatics Center, Department of Science and Education, The Field Museum, Chicago, IL 60605, USA;
| | - Katja Sterflinger
- Academy of Fine Arts Vienna, Institute of Natual Sciences and Technology in the Arts, 1090 Vienna, Austria;
| | - Donatella Tesei
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, 1190 Vienna, Austria;
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Pralea IE, Moldovan RC, Petrache AM, Ilieș M, Hegheș SC, Ielciu I, Nicoară R, Moldovan M, Ene M, Radu M, Uifălean A, Iuga CA. From Extraction to Advanced Analytical Methods: The Challenges of Melanin Analysis. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:E3943. [PMID: 31412656 PMCID: PMC6719904 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20163943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2019] [Revised: 08/08/2019] [Accepted: 08/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The generic term "melanin" describes a black pigment of biological origin, although some melanins can be brown or even yellow. The pigment is characterized as a heterogenic polymer of phenolic or indolic nature, and the classification of eu-, pheo- and allo- melanin is broadly accepted. This classification is based on the chemical composition of the monomer subunit structure of the pigment. Due to the high heterogeneity of melanins, their analytical characterization can be a challenging task. In the present work, we synthesized the current information about the analytical methods which can be applied in melanin analysis workflow, from extraction and purification to high-throughput methods, such as matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass-spectrometry or pyrolysis gas chromatography. Our thorough comparative evaluation of analytical data published so far on melanin analysis has proven to be a difficult task in terms of finding equivalent results, even when the same matrix was used. Moreover, we emphasize the importance of prior knowledge of melanin types and properties in order to select a valid experimental design using analytical methods that are able to deliver reliable results and draw consistent conclusions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioana-Ecaterina Pralea
- MedFuture - Research Center for Advanced Medicine, "Iuliu Hațieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Louis Pasteur Street 4-6, Gh. Marinescu Street 23, 400349 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Radu-Cristian Moldovan
- MedFuture - Research Center for Advanced Medicine, "Iuliu Hațieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Louis Pasteur Street 4-6, Gh. Marinescu Street 23, 400349 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Alina-Maria Petrache
- MedFuture - Research Center for Advanced Medicine, "Iuliu Hațieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Louis Pasteur Street 4-6, Gh. Marinescu Street 23, 400349 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Maria Ilieș
- MedFuture - Research Center for Advanced Medicine, "Iuliu Hațieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Louis Pasteur Street 4-6, Gh. Marinescu Street 23, 400349 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Simona-Codruța Hegheș
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Faculty of Pharmacy, "Iuliu Hațieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Louis Pasteur Street 6, 400349Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Irina Ielciu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmacy, "Iuliu Hațieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Louis Pasteur Street 6, 400337 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Raul Nicoară
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Faculty of Pharmacy, "Iuliu Hațieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Louis Pasteur Street 6, 400349Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Mirela Moldovan
- Department of Dermopharmacy and Cosmetics, Faculty of Pharmacy, "Iuliu Hațieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ion Creangă Street 12, 400010 Cluj-Napoca, , Romania
| | - Mihaela Ene
- Horia Hulubei National Institute for Physics and Nuclear Engineering, Reactorului Street 30, 077125 Măgurele, Romania
| | - Mihai Radu
- Horia Hulubei National Institute for Physics and Nuclear Engineering, Reactorului Street 30, 077125 Măgurele, Romania
| | - Alina Uifălean
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Faculty of Pharmacy, "Iuliu Hațieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Louis Pasteur Street 6, 400349Cluj-Napoca, Romania.
| | - Cristina-Adela Iuga
- MedFuture - Research Center for Advanced Medicine, "Iuliu Hațieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Louis Pasteur Street 4-6, Gh. Marinescu Street 23, 400349 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Faculty of Pharmacy, "Iuliu Hațieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Louis Pasteur Street 6, 400349Cluj-Napoca, Romania
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Ribera J, Panzarasa G, Stobbe A, Osypova A, Rupper P, Klose D, Schwarze FWMR. Scalable Biosynthesis of Melanin by the Basidiomycete Armillaria cepistipes. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2019; 67:132-139. [PMID: 30541276 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b05071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Natural melanin features many interesting properties, including the ability to shield electromagnetic radiation, the ability to act as scavenger for radical and reactive oxygen species and the capacity to chelate different metal ions. For these reasons, melanin is becoming increasingly relevant for the development of functional materials with potential applications in cosmetics, drug delivery, and water purification. However, the extraction and purification of melanin from conventional sources (e.g., sepia ink, hair, and wool) is inefficient and not easily scalable, hence diverting its technological applications. Some fungal species, especially wood-decay basidiomycetes, can be regarded as promising sources of melanin. In the present study, we screened different fungi in regard to their melanin-biosynthesis abilities using l-tyrosine as a precursor, and we found that an Armillaria cepistipes strain (Empa 655) produced the highest yield of melanin (27.98 g L-1). Physicochemical characterization of the obtained fungal melanin revealed a typical eumelanin structure. The method for the biosynthesis of fungal melanin we propose is efficient, scalable, and sustainable and has the potential to provide support for further technological exploitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier Ribera
- Laboratory for Applied Wood Materials , Empa , Lerchenfeldstrasse 5 , St. Gallen 9014 , Switzerland
| | - Guido Panzarasa
- Laboratory for Soft and Living Materials, Department of Materials , ETH Zürich , Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 5 , Zürich 8093 , Switzerland
| | - Annika Stobbe
- Laboratory for Applied Wood Materials , Empa , Lerchenfeldstrasse 5 , St. Gallen 9014 , Switzerland
| | - Alina Osypova
- Innovative Sensor Technology, IST AG , Stegrütistrasse 14 , Ebnat-Kappel 9642 , Switzerland
| | - Patrick Rupper
- Laboratory for Advanced Fibers , Empa , Lerchenfeldstrase 5 , St. Gallen 9014 , Switzerland
| | - Daniel Klose
- Laboratory for Physical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences , ETH Zürich , Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 5 , Zürich 8093 , Switzerland
| | - Francis W M R Schwarze
- Laboratory for Applied Wood Materials , Empa , Lerchenfeldstrasse 5 , St. Gallen 9014 , Switzerland
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