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Yang F, Ma K, Cao Y, Li Z. Application of Magnetic Materials Combined with Echo ® Mass Spectrometry System in Analysis of Illegal Drugs in Sewage. Molecules 2024; 29:2060. [PMID: 38731551 PMCID: PMC11085165 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29092060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2024] [Revised: 04/25/2024] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study is to solve the problems of the complicated pretreatment and high analytical cost in the detection technology of trace drugs and their metabolites in municipal wastewater. A high-performance magnetic sorbent was fsynthesized for the enrichment of trace drugs and their metabolites in wastewater to develop a magnetic solid-phase extraction pretreatment combined with the acoustic ejection mass spectrometry (AEMS) analytical method. The magnetic nanospheres were successfully prepared by magnetic nanoparticles modified with divinylbenzene and vinylpyrrolidone. The results showed that the linear dynamic range of 17 drugs was 1-500 ng/mL, the recovery was 44-100%, the matrix effect was more than 51%, the quantification limit was 1-2 ng/mL, and the MS measurement was fast. It can be seen that the developed magnetic solid-phase extraction (MSPE) method is a good solution to the problems of the complicated pretreatment and analytical cost in the analysis of drugs in wastewater. The developed magnetic material and acoustic excitation pretreatment coupled with mass spectrometry analysis method can realize the low-cost, efficient enrichment, and fast analysis of different kinds of drug molecules in urban sewage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feiyu Yang
- Shanghai Research Institute of Criminal Science and Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence, Shanghai 200083, China;
| | - Kaijun Ma
- Shanghai Institute of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence, Shanghai 200083, China;
| | - Yichao Cao
- Shanghai Research Institute of Criminal Science and Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence, Shanghai 200083, China;
| | - Zhiyuan Li
- Shanghai AB Sciex Analytical Instrument Trading Co., Ltd., Beijing 100015, China;
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2
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Hue TTT, Zheng Q, Anh NTK, Binh VN, Trung NQ, Trang HT, Chinh PQ, Minh LQ, Thai PK. Prevalence of illicit drug consumption in a population of Hanoi: an estimation using wastewater-based epidemiology. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 815:152724. [PMID: 34995598 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Revised: 12/23/2021] [Accepted: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Illicit drug use is a serious issue in Vietnam, but information about their prevalence is scarce, mainly based on seizure data. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) is an alternative tool for obtaining such information, especially when stigma related to drug use can hinder survey approaches. The study aimed to apply WBE to assess the prevalence of use of a range of illicit drugs in an urban population of Vietnam. A total of 184 wastewater samples were collected at two different sites along a sewage canal, receiving sewage from over 400,000 people in Hanoi, Vietnam, in three different periods between 2018 and 2020. Illicit drugs and their metabolites were measured by direct injection using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The results were back-estimated, normalised to per capita daily consumption for assessement of consumption patterns and trends. Most drugs were detected in all the samples except cocaine, benzoylecgonine, amphetamine indicating a low prevalence of cocaine and amphetamine use. The estimated consumption level of methamphetamine was varied from 119.5 to 553.5 mg/d/1000 pp. The market of illicit drugs in Vietnam has changed from opiates to amphetamine-type simulants, and methamphetamine has replaced heroin as the No.1 drug, its use can be as much as 3 times more than heroin use. Moreover, we observed the considerable and potentially increasing level of ketamine consumption in Hanoi. No statistical difference was found in daily consumption per capita among days of the week for any drugs, both legal (codeine, methadone) and illegal (methamphetamine, MDMA, ketamine and heroin), suggesting the drugs were consumed mainly by regular users. This study provides important information related the illicit drug consumption in Vietnam, which will help to formulate appropriate drug control policies in this country.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tran Thi Thanh Hue
- Department of Pharmacology, National Institute of Drug Quality Control, Hanoi, Viet Nam; Department of Analytical Chemistry and Toxicology, Hanoi University of Pharmacy, Viet Nam
| | - Qiuda Zheng
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, Queensland 4102, Australia
| | - Nguyen Thi Kieu Anh
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Toxicology, Hanoi University of Pharmacy, Viet Nam.
| | - Vu Ngan Binh
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Toxicology, Hanoi University of Pharmacy, Viet Nam
| | - Ngo Quang Trung
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Toxicology, Hanoi University of Pharmacy, Viet Nam
| | - Hoang Thu Trang
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Toxicology, Hanoi University of Pharmacy, Viet Nam
| | - Pham Quoc Chinh
- Department of Toxins, National Institute of Forensic Medicine, Hanoi, Viet Nam
| | | | - Phong K Thai
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, Queensland 4102, Australia.
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3
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Löve ASC, Ásgrímsson V, Ólafsdóttir K. Illicit drug use in Reykjavik by wastewater-based epidemiology. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 803:149795. [PMID: 34482138 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Revised: 08/15/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Estimation of illicit drug use on a community level by wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) is both an objective and reliable way to establish near real-time results. Wastewater samples were collected at eleven timepoints in Reykjavik from 2017 to 2020. The use of commonly abused illicit drugs in Iceland (amphetamine, methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), cocaine, and cannabis) was estimated. Solid phase extraction and ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry was used for analysis. Estimated amphetamine and methamphetamine use showed signs of an increase from 2017 to 2020 with amphetamine being the dominant stimulant on the market. MDMA use remained stable from 2017 to 2020. Results showed a large increase in cocaine use from 2017 to 2019 but interestingly, a marked decrease in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic. Cannabis use was stable from 2017 to 2019 but showed signs of an increase during the pandemic in 2020. Results by WBE corresponded with data based on two other indicators of drug use, seizure data and driving under the influence cases. Both temporal and spatial trends in illicit drug use were successfully estimated by using WBE, complimenting other indicators which provided a comprehensive picture of drug abuse in Reykjavik.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arndís Sue Ching Löve
- University of Iceland, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Hofsvallagata 53, 107 Reykjavik, Iceland.
| | - Valþór Ásgrímsson
- University of Iceland, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Hofsvallagata 53, 107 Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - Kristín Ólafsdóttir
- University of Iceland, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Hofsvallagata 53, 107 Reykjavik, Iceland
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4
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Mills L, Freeman J, Davey J, Davey B. The who, what and when of drug driving in Queensland: Analysing the results of roadside drug testing, 2015-2020. ACCIDENT; ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION 2021; 159:106231. [PMID: 34130055 DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2021.106231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Revised: 05/30/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Roadside Drug Testing (RDT) is the primary strategy utilised in Australia to detect and deter drug driving. RDT operations have been expanding and evolving in Queensland since their introduction in 2007, with the number of tests increasing by 5.63 times between 2009 and 2019. The objective of this paper was to explore trends and characteristics of the 60,551 positive results detected in Queensland's RDT program (from January 2015 to June 2020), which focuses on the detection of Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), Methylenedioxymethylamphetamine (MDMA) and methamphetamine (MA). The analysis indicated that (over the entire testing period) MA was the most common drug detected in isolation (39.4%), followed by THC (34%) and the combination of MA and THC (21.9%). When considering detections with two or more drugs, MA was present in 64% of detections, THC in 59% and MDMA in 1.8%. THC was most commonly detected among younger drivers (e.g., aged 16 to 24), while MA was most commonly detected with drivers aged 25 and 59 years. Analysis of sociodemographic and contextual factors revealed that positive roadside tests were most commonly associated with males who had consumed methamphetamines, aged between 30 and 39 who were driving a car on a Friday or Saturday between 2:00 pm and 6:00 pm. The findings provide some indication as to the extent of drug driving within Queensland (and growing use of MA) and have clear implications for enforcement activities, not least, directing sufficient resources to address the burgeoning problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Mills
- Road Safety Research Collaboration, University of the Sunshine Coast, 90 Sippy Downs Dr, Sippy Downs, Queensland 4556, Australia.
| | - James Freeman
- Road Safety Research Collaboration, University of the Sunshine Coast, 90 Sippy Downs Dr, Sippy Downs, Queensland 4556, Australia.
| | - Jeremy Davey
- Road Safety Research Collaboration, University of the Sunshine Coast, 90 Sippy Downs Dr, Sippy Downs, Queensland 4556, Australia.
| | - Benjamin Davey
- Road Safety Research Collaboration, University of the Sunshine Coast, 90 Sippy Downs Dr, Sippy Downs, Queensland 4556, Australia.
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Langa I, Gonçalves R, Tiritan ME, Ribeiro C. Wastewater analysis of psychoactive drugs: Non-enantioselective vs enantioselective methods for estimation of consumption. Forensic Sci Int 2021; 325:110873. [PMID: 34153554 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2021.110873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Revised: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The consumption of licit and illicit psychoactive drugs (PAD) is ubiquitous in all communities and a serious public health problem. Measuring drug consumption is difficult but essential for health-care professionals, risk assessment and policymakers. Different sources of information have been used for a comprehensive analysis of drug consumption. Among them, Wastewater based epidemiology (WBE) emerged as an essential and complementary methodology for estimating licit and illicit drugs consumption. This methodology can be used for quantification of unchanged drugs or their human-specific metabolites in wastewater for estimation of consumption or screening of new PAD. Although some limitations are still being pointed out (e.g., estimation of the population size, use of suitable biomarkers or pharmacokinetics studies), the non-invasive and potential for monitoring real-time data on geographical and temporal trends in drug use have been showing its capacity as a routine and complementary tool. Chromatographic methods, both non-enantioselective and enantioselective are the analytical tools used for quantification of PAD in wastewaters and further estimation of consumption. Therefore, this manuscript aims to summarize and critically discuss the works used for wastewater analysis of PAD based on WBE using non-enantioselective and enantioselective methods for estimation of consumption. Non-enantioselective methods are among the most reported including for chiral PAD. Nevertheless, a trend has been seen towards the development of enantioselective methods as most PAD are chiral and determination of the enantiomeric fraction can provide additional information (e.g., distinction between consumption or direct disposal, or manufacture processes) and fulfill some WBE gaps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Langa
- CESPU, Instituto de Investigação e Formação Avançada em Ciências e Tecnologias da Saúde, Rua Central de Gandra, 1317, 4585-116 Gandra PRD, Portugal
| | - Ricardo Gonçalves
- CESPU, Instituto de Investigação e Formação Avançada em Ciências e Tecnologias da Saúde, Rua Central de Gandra, 1317, 4585-116 Gandra PRD, Portugal
| | - Maria Elizabeth Tiritan
- CESPU, Instituto de Investigação e Formação Avançada em Ciências e Tecnologias da Saúde, Rua Central de Gandra, 1317, 4585-116 Gandra PRD, Portugal; Laboratório de Química Orgânica e Farmacêutica, Departamento de Ciências Químicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental (CIIMAR/CIMAR), Universidade do Porto, Edifício do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Av. General Norton de Matos s/n, 4050-208 Matosinhos, Portugal.
| | - Cláudia Ribeiro
- CESPU, Instituto de Investigação e Formação Avançada em Ciências e Tecnologias da Saúde, Rua Central de Gandra, 1317, 4585-116 Gandra PRD, Portugal; Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental (CIIMAR/CIMAR), Universidade do Porto, Edifício do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Av. General Norton de Matos s/n, 4050-208 Matosinhos, Portugal.
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6
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Ahmed F, Tscharke B, O'Brien JW, Cabot PJ, Hall WD, Mueller JF, Thomas KV. Can wastewater analysis be used as a tool to assess the burden of pain treatment within a population? ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2020; 188:109769. [PMID: 32535354 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2020.109769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2020] [Revised: 05/30/2020] [Accepted: 05/30/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Pain is a global health priority that is challenging to asses. Here we propose a new approach to estimating the burden of pain treatment in a population using wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE). WBE is able to quantify multiple pharmaceutical compounds in order to estimate consumption by a population. Wastewater samples collected from areas representing whole communities can be analysed to estimate the consumption of drugs used to treat pain, such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and opioids. The collection and analysis of wastewater can be conducted systematically to estimate the total consumption of NSAIDs and/or opioids in the population of a catchment area and to compare changes over time within the catchment or between different catchment populations. Consumption estimates can be combined by standardising the mass consumed to Defined Daily Doses (DDD) or morphine equivalents in order to assess, the population burden of pain treatment from mild to moderate (for NSAIDs) and for strong and severe pain (for opioids). We propose this method could be used to evaluate the total pain treatment burden between locations and over time. While this concept shows promise, future studies should evaluate the applicability as a tool to measure the burden of pain receiving treatment in a community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fahad Ahmed
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, Woolloongabba, QLD, 4102, Australia.
| | - Benjamin Tscharke
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, Woolloongabba, QLD, 4102, Australia
| | - Jake W O'Brien
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, Woolloongabba, QLD, 4102, Australia
| | - Peter J Cabot
- School of Pharmacy, The University of Queensland, Woolloongabba, QLD, 4102, Australia
| | - Wayne D Hall
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, Woolloongabba, QLD, 4102, Australia; Centre for Youth Substance Abuse Research, The University of Queensland, Herston, QLD, 4029, Australia
| | - Jochen F Mueller
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, Woolloongabba, QLD, 4102, Australia
| | - Kevin V Thomas
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, Woolloongabba, QLD, 4102, Australia
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7
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Brandeburová P, Bodík I, Horáková I, Žabka D, Castiglioni S, Salgueiro-González N, Zuccato E, Špalková V, Mackuľak T. Wastewater-based epidemiology to assess the occurrence of new psychoactive substances and alcohol consumption in Slovakia. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2020; 200:110762. [PMID: 32450441 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.110762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2019] [Revised: 05/05/2020] [Accepted: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Consumption of alcohol and new psychoactive substances (NPS) in a population or during special events (music festivals) is usually monitored through individual questionnaires, forensic and toxicological data, and drug seizures. However, consumption estimates have some biases due mostly to the unknown composition of drug pills for NPS and stockpiling for alcohol. The aim of this study was to evaluate for the first time the real use of alcohol and the occurrence of NPS in Slovakia by wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE). Urban wastewater samples were collected from nine Slovak cities over two years (2017-2018) and during three music festivals. The study included about 20% of the Slovak population and 50 000 festival attendees. The urinary alcohol biomarker ethyl sulfate (EtS) and thirty NPS were analyzed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC - MS/MS). EtS concentrations were used for estimating the per capita alcohol consumption in each city. The average alcohol consumption in the selected cities and festivals in 2017-2018 ranged between 7 and 126 L/day/1000 inhabitants and increased during the weekends and music festivals. Five NPS belonging to the classes of synthetic cathinones (mephedrone, methcathinone, buphedrone and pentedrone) and phenethylamines (25-iP-NBoMe) were found in the low ng/L range. Methcathinone was the most frequently detected NPS, while the highest normalized mass load corresponded to mephedrone (3.1 mg/day/1000 inhabitants). Wastewater-based epidemiology can provide timely information on alcohol consumption and NPS occurrence at the community level that is complementary to epidemiology-based monitoring techniques (e.g. population surveys, police seizures, sales statistics).
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Brandeburová
- Institute of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Radlinského 9, 812 37, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Igor Bodík
- Institute of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Radlinského 9, 812 37, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Ivana Horáková
- Institute of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Radlinského 9, 812 37, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Dušan Žabka
- Institute of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Radlinského 9, 812 37, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Sara Castiglioni
- Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via Mario Negri 2, 20156, Milan, Italy
| | - Noelia Salgueiro-González
- Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via Mario Negri 2, 20156, Milan, Italy
| | - Ettore Zuccato
- Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via Mario Negri 2, 20156, Milan, Italy
| | - Viera Špalková
- Department of Inorganic Technology, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Radlinského 9, 812 37, Bratislava, Slovakia; Department of Zoology and Fisheries, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcka 129, 165 00 Praha 6 - Suchdol, Czech Republic
| | - Tomáš Mackuľak
- Institute of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Radlinského 9, 812 37, Bratislava, Slovakia.
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Jones NS, Comparin JH. Interpol review of controlled substances 2016-2019. Forensic Sci Int Synerg 2020; 2:608-669. [PMID: 33385148 PMCID: PMC7770462 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsisyn.2020.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
This review paper covers the forensic-relevant literature in controlled substances from 2016 to 2019 as a part of the 19th Interpol International Forensic Science Managers Symposium. The review papers are also available at the Interpol website at: https://www.interpol.int/content/download/14458/file/Interpol%20Review%20Papers%202019.pdf.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole S. Jones
- RTI International, Applied Justice Research Division, Center for Forensic Sciences, 3040 E. Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC, 22709-2194, USA
| | - Jeffrey H. Comparin
- United States Drug Enforcement Administration, Special Testing and Research Laboratory, USA
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Goulding N, Hickman M, Reid M, Amundsen EJ, Baz-Lomba JA, O'Brien JW, Tscharke BJ, de Voogt P, Emke E, Kuijpers W, Hall W, Jones HE. A comparison of trends in wastewater-based data and traditional epidemiological indicators of stimulant consumption in three locations. Addiction 2020; 115:462-472. [PMID: 31633843 DOI: 10.1111/add.14852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2019] [Revised: 06/13/2019] [Accepted: 09/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To compare long-term trends in wastewater data with other indicators of stimulant use in three locations and to test the reliability of estimates based on 1 week of sampling. DESIGN Comparison of trends in quantities ('loads') of stimulants or their metabolites in wastewater with trends in other indicators of stimulant use (e.g. treatment, police, population survey data). SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS Populations in Oslo (Norway), South-East Queensland (Australia) and Eindhoven (the Netherlands). MEASUREMENTS Wastewater data were modelled for MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine), benzoylecgonine (a metabolite of cocaine), amphetamine and methamphetamine in Oslo; benzoylecgonine in Eindhoven; and methamphetamine in South-East Queensland. Choice of stimulants modelled in each region was primarily determined by availability of useable data. FINDINGS In Oslo, wastewater data, driving under the influence of drugs statistics and seizure data all suggested increasing MDMA use between 2009 and 2017. In South-East Queensland, there was an estimated 31.1% [95% confidence interval (CI) = 29.4-32.9%] annual increase in daily loads of methamphetamine in wastewater between 2009 and 2016, compared with a 14.1% (95% CI = 10.9-17.3%) annual increase in seizures. Some of the increase in wastewater can be explained by increased purity. In Eindhoven, there was no evidence of a change in cocaine consumption from wastewater, but a reduction was observed in numbers in treatment for cocaine use from 2012 to 2017. In approximately half the cases examined in Oslo, credible intervals around estimates of annual average loads from a regression model versus estimates based on a single week of sampling did not overlap. CONCLUSIONS Long-term trends in loads of stimulants in wastewater appear to be broadly consistent with trends in other indicators of stimulant use in three locations. Wastewater data should be interpreted alongside epidemiological indicators and purity data. One week of wastewater sampling may not be sufficient for valid inference about drug consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil Goulding
- Population Health Sciences, University of Bristol, Canynge Hall, Bristol, UK
| | - Matthew Hickman
- Population Health Sciences, University of Bristol, Canynge Hall, Bristol, UK
| | - Malcolm Reid
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ellen J Amundsen
- Department of Alcohol, Tobacco and Drugs, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Jake W O'Brien
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, Woolloongabba, QLD, Australia
| | - Ben J Tscharke
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, Woolloongabba, QLD, Australia
| | - Pim de Voogt
- KWR Water Research Institute, Nieuwegein, the Netherlands.,Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Erik Emke
- KWR Water Research Institute, Nieuwegein, the Netherlands
| | - Wil Kuijpers
- Stichting Informatievoorziening Zorg (IVZ), Houten, the Netherlands
| | - Wayne Hall
- Centre for Youth Substance Abuse Research, The University of Queensland, Herston, QLD, Australia
| | - Hayley E Jones
- Population Health Sciences, University of Bristol, Canynge Hall, Bristol, UK
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Shao XT, Liu YS, Tan DQ, Wang Z, Zheng XY, Wang DG. Methamphetamine use in typical Chinese cities evaluated by wastewater-based epidemiology. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2020; 27:8157-8165. [PMID: 31900768 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-019-07504-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2019] [Accepted: 12/22/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Methamphetamine has become one of the most widely used illicit drugs in China. To understand the current situation in China, the prevalence and consumption of methamphetamine were estimated through wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) in the present study. Methamphetamine concentrations ranged from 42.6 ng/L (Harbin) to 700 ng/L (Xi'an) in influent wastewater samples collected from 27 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in 22 Chinese cities. The estimated consumption of methamphetamine was 23.0 (Dingxi) to 376 (Xi'an) mg/day/1000 inhabitants with a mean value of 157 mg/day/1000 inhabitants. The annual consumption in 2018 was estimated to be 84 tons (95% confidence interval, 44-136), which was 26% lower than that in 2014. The prevalence of methamphetamine use was 0.64% (95% confidence interval, 0.18-1.25), indicating that more than five million people used methamphetamine in 2018. Although drug abuse is common in the country, the consumption showed a different spatial pattern, with the highest values in Central China and the lowest use in Northeast China, so drug use is still considered a geographic and culture-dependent behaviour. The results indicated that WBE can not only be used to assess the trends of illicit drug use, but also to analyse the spatial differences in the whole country, which will provide complementary evidence for the prevention and control of methamphetamine use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue-Ting Shao
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, 116026, China
| | - Yue-Shan Liu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, 116026, China
| | - Dong-Qin Tan
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, 116026, China
| | - Zhuang Wang
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Environment Monitoring and Pollution Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, No. 219 Ningliu Road, Nanjing, 210044, China
| | - Xiao-Yu Zheng
- Institute of Forensic Science, Ministry of Public Security, Beijing, China
| | - De-Gao Wang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, 116026, China.
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Du P, Liu X, Zhong G, Zhou Z, Thomes MW, Lee CW, Bong CW, Zhang X, Hao F, Li X, Zhang G, Thai PK. Monitoring Consumption of Common Illicit Drugs in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, by Wastewater-Cased Epidemiology. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17030889. [PMID: 32023897 PMCID: PMC7036889 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17030889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Revised: 01/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Southeast Asian countries including Malaysia play a major role in global drug trade and abuse. Use of amphetamine-type stimulants has increased in the past decade in Malaysia. This study aimed to apply wastewater-based epidemiology for the first time in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, to estimate the consumption of common illicit drugs in urban population. Influent wastewater samples were collected from two wastewater treatment plants in Kuala Lumpur in the summer of 2017. Concentrations of twenty-four drug biomarkers were analyzed for estimating drug consumption. Fourteen drug residues were detected with concentrations of up to 1640 ng/L. Among the monitored illicit drugs, 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA) or ecstasy had the highest estimated per capita consumptions. Consumption and dose of amphetamine-type stimulants (methamphetamine and MDMA) were both an order of magnitude higher than those of opioids (heroin and codeine, methadone and tramadol). Amphetamine-type stimulants were the most prevalent drugs, replacing opioids in the drug market. The prevalence trend measured by wastewater-based epidemiology data reflected the shift to amphetamine-type stimulants as reported by the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Narcotics Cooperation Center. Most of the undetected drug residues were new psychoactive substances (NPSs), suggesting a low prevalence of NPSs in the drug market.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Du
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Urban Hydrological Cycle and Sponge City Technology, College of Water Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; (P.D.); (X.Z.); (F.H.)
- Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China;
| | - Xin Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China; (X.L.); (G.Z.)
| | - Guangcai Zhong
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China; (X.L.); (G.Z.)
| | - Zilei Zhou
- Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China;
| | - Margaret William Thomes
- Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia; (M.W.T.); (C.W.L.); (C.W.B.)
| | - Choon Weng Lee
- Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia; (M.W.T.); (C.W.L.); (C.W.B.)
- Institute of Ocean and Earth Sciences (IOES), University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Chui Wei Bong
- Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia; (M.W.T.); (C.W.L.); (C.W.B.)
- Institute of Ocean and Earth Sciences (IOES), University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Xuan Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Urban Hydrological Cycle and Sponge City Technology, College of Water Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; (P.D.); (X.Z.); (F.H.)
| | - Fanghua Hao
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Urban Hydrological Cycle and Sponge City Technology, College of Water Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; (P.D.); (X.Z.); (F.H.)
| | - Xiqing Li
- Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China;
- Correspondence: (X.L.); (G.Z.)
| | - Gan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China; (X.L.); (G.Z.)
- Correspondence: (X.L.); (G.Z.)
| | - Phong K. Thai
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, Brisbane 4102, Queensland, Australia;
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Centazzo N, Frederick BM, Jacox A, Cheng SY, Concheiro-Guisan M. Wastewater analysis for nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines, opioids and cannabis in New York City. Forensic Sci Res 2019; 4:152-167. [PMID: 31304444 PMCID: PMC6609350 DOI: 10.1080/20961790.2019.1609388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2018] [Revised: 04/08/2019] [Accepted: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
According to current surveys and overdoses data, there is a drug crisis in the USA. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) is an evolving discipline that analyses wastewater samples to detect drugs and metabolites to estimate drug consumption in a certain community. This study demonstrates how drug relative presence could be tracked by testing wastewater, providing real-time results, in different boroughs in New York City throughout 1 year. We developed and fully validated two analytical methods, one for 21 drugs and metabolites, including nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines, opioids and cannabis markers; and another for the normalization factor creatinine. Both methods were performed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) using positive electrospray ionization, achieving a limit of quantification of 5–10 ng/L for drugs and metabolites, and 0.01 mg/L for creatinine. These methods were applied to 48 one-time grab wastewater samples collected from six wastewater treatment plants in New York City (Manhattan, The Bronx, Queens and Brooklyn), eight different times throughout 2016, before and after major holidays, including Memorial Day, 4th of July, Labour Day and New Year’s. In this study, the drug group normalized concentrations present in the wastewater samples, in decreasing order, were cocaine, nicotine, opioids, cannabis and amphetamines. When looking at individual compounds, the one with the highest normalized concentration was benzoylecgonine (BE), followed by cotinine, morphine and 11-nor-9-carboxy-tetrahydrocannabinol (THCCOOH). To estimate community use, these concentrations were multiplied by the corresponding correction factor, and the most present were THCCOOH, followed by BE, cotinine and morphine. When comparing the treatment plants by drug group (nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines, opioids and cannabis), samples collected from The Bronx had the highest normalized concentrations for nicotine, cocaine and opioids; The Bronx and Manhattan for cannabis; and Manhattan and Queens for amphetamines. In most of the cases, no effect due to holiday was observed. This study provides the first snapshot of drug use in New York City and how that changes between key calendar dates employing wastewater analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Centazzo
- Department of Sciences, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York, New York, NY, USA
| | - Bonnie-Marie Frederick
- Department of Sciences, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York, New York, NY, USA
| | - Alethea Jacox
- Department of Sciences, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York, New York, NY, USA
| | - Shu-Yuan Cheng
- Department of Sciences, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York, New York, NY, USA
| | - Marta Concheiro-Guisan
- Department of Sciences, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York, New York, NY, USA
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Jacka B, Kemp R, Degenhardt L, Peacock A, Clare P, Bruno R, Dev A, Sotade O, Larance B. Trends in methamphetamine and opioid use among clients of needle-syringe programs in Queensland, Australia: 2007-2015. Drug Alcohol Rev 2019; 38:159-168. [PMID: 30761653 DOI: 10.1111/dar.12908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2017] [Revised: 01/08/2019] [Accepted: 01/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION AND AIMS Needle-syringe programs (NSP) are an underutilized source of data on drug injection trends; these data are essential for informing public health interventions. We examine trends in NSP service occasions from 2007-2015. DESIGN AND METHODS Using standardised data from 26 NSP outlets through the Queensland NSP Minimum Data Set (QNSPMDS), trends in service occasions among clients intending to inject methamphetamine, heroin, opioid substitution therapy (OST) medications and other pharmaceutical opioids were assessed using multilevel mixed-effects negative binomial regression, adjusting for month, year, age and clustering by site. RESULTS Over 1.5 million service occasions were recorded in 2007-2015. Methamphetamine was the main 'drug intended to inject' (33.7%), however cf. 2007, the incidence rate ratio decreased to 0.64 (95% CI: 0.62, 0.66) in 2009, remaining low until 2015. Among clients reporting methamphetamine injection, there was a shift in the form from base to the higher-potency crystal methamphetamine since 2012. Heroin injection (22.5% service occasions) initially increased (cf. 2007), followed by a decline to 0.77 (95% CI: 0.75, 0.79) in 2015. Significant and sustained increases in OST and other pharmaceutical opioids injection were observed throughout the study period, accounting for 7.2% and 19.8% of total visits, respectively. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The QNSPMDS provides unique, routinely collected, jurisdiction-wide and standardised data on the demographics of people who inject drugs, types of drugs injected and regional variations; these data are essential in informing policy, planning and program implementation. There remains significant opportunity to enhance engagement and linkage to care alongside needle-syringe provision.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brendan Jacka
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, Australia.,Kirby Institute, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Robert Kemp
- Communicable Diseases Branch, Queensland Health, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Louisa Degenhardt
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Amy Peacock
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, Australia.,School of Medicine (Psychology), University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
| | - Philip Clare
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Raimondo Bruno
- School of Medicine (Psychology), University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
| | - Abhilash Dev
- Chief Medical Officer and Healthcare Regulation Branch, Queensland Health, Brisbane, Australia
| | | | - Briony Larance
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, Australia.,School of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
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“A more accurate understanding of drug use”: A critical analysis of wastewater analysis technology for drug policy. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2019; 63:47-55. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2018] [Revised: 10/29/2018] [Accepted: 10/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Wang Z, Shao XT, Tan DQ, Yan JH, Xiao Y, Zheng QD, Pei W, Wang Z, Wang DG. Reduction in methamphetamine consumption trends from 2015 to 2018 detected by wastewater-based epidemiology in Dalian, China. Drug Alcohol Depend 2019; 194:302-309. [PMID: 30469102 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.10.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2018] [Revised: 10/21/2018] [Accepted: 10/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has become a useful tool in long-term or short-term continuous monitoring of illicit drugs consumption over the world. METHODS We investigated the trend of methamphetamine (METH) use between 2015 and 2018 through WBE in Dalian, a typical Chinese city. Samples were collected in 11 municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). An analytical method, solid-phase extraction combined with trifluoroacetic anhydride derivatization prior to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis was applied to detect METH concentrations. RESULTS During the sampling period, the METH concentrations increased slowly from 315 ± 243 ng/L in 2015 to 523 ± 549 ng/L in 2016, followed by a significant decrease with the concentrations 188 ± 187 ng/L in 2017 and 54.6 ± 42.9 ng/L in 2018. Ammonium nitrogen (NH4-N) was applied to estimate population size. The average coefficient of variation for population in 11 WWTPs was 35.3 ± 8.9%, reflecting the dynamic variations of population effectively. For METH consumption, there was a gradual increase from 2015 (231 mg/day/1000 people) to 2016 (414 mg/day/1000 people) and a significant linear decrease to 2017 (206 mg/day/1000 people) and 2018 (53.9 mg/day/1000 people). The prevalence of METH increased from 2015 (0.78%) to 2016 (1.06%), then decreased to 2017 (0.55%) and 2018 (0.17%), showed similar trends with the consumption. CONCLUSIONS The obvious reduction trends of METH consumption via WBE over the period in Dalian provides objective evidence for declined METH consumption in local population. The reduction is probably due to the severe crack-down of illicit drugs by the government.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Wang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No.1 Linghai Road, Dalian, Liaoning, 116026, China
| | - Xue-Ting Shao
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No.1 Linghai Road, Dalian, Liaoning, 116026, China
| | - Dong-Qin Tan
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No.1 Linghai Road, Dalian, Liaoning, 116026, China
| | - Ji-Hao Yan
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No.1 Linghai Road, Dalian, Liaoning, 116026, China
| | - Yang Xiao
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No.1 Linghai Road, Dalian, Liaoning, 116026, China
| | - Qiu-Da Zheng
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No.1 Linghai Road, Dalian, Liaoning, 116026, China
| | - Wei Pei
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No.1 Linghai Road, Dalian, Liaoning, 116026, China
| | - Zhuang Wang
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology (AEET), School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
| | - De-Gao Wang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No.1 Linghai Road, Dalian, Liaoning, 116026, China.
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