Environmental health assessment of warming coastal ecosystems in the tropics - Application of integrative physiological indices

Physiological strategies of acute thermal conditions of Rhamdia voulezi collected in the Iguaçu river watershed, Paraná, Brazil: biochemical markers of metabolic and oxidative stress

Thermal pollution creates substantial challenges that alter energy demand and produce reactive oxygen species that damage fish DNA, proteins, and lipids. Rhamdia voulezi is a species of fish native to the Iguaçu river, Paraná, Brazil, that does not have scientific records of minimum (CTmin) and maximum (CTmax) temperatures required for survival. As it is a top predator species in the food chain and lives at temperatures below 22 °C, the loss of the species can cause functional problems in controlling the ecosystem and energy flow. The study evaluated the tissue metabolism of the brain, heart, and muscle of R. voulezi (n = 72) subjected to acute thermal stress of 31 °C for 2, 6, 12, 24, and 96 h after acclimatization to 21 °C. The biochemical markers SOD, GPx, MDH, HK, and CK of the brain, PCO of the heart and CAT, glycogen, G6PDH, and ALT of muscle were significant. PCA, IBR, thermal sensitive, and condition factor suggested that R. voulezi has different physiological strategies for acclimatization to 31 °C to mobilize and sustain the metabolic needs of oxygenation and energy allocation/utilization for tissue ATP production.

Effects of carotenoid supplementation on colour, growth and physiological function of the endemic dwarf chameleon fish (Badis badis)

The global ornamental fish trade is expanding in response to increased demand for indigenous fish on the global market, while exogenous carotenoids can improve colouration. The 60-day trial investigated the effect of carotenoid supplementation, via Artemia, on colouration, growth and immunophysiology of Badis badis (dwarf chameleon fish). Carotenoid was enriched at 40 ppm (T1), 80 ppm (T2) and 120 ppm (T3) and compared with controls, C1 (unenriched) and C2 (oil-enriched). Fish larvae (average weight 0.12 g) were fed enriched-unenriched Artemia in triplicates (5 × 3) in aquarium tanks (15 L). C1 and T2 had better skin colour (lightness and whiteness) in the posterolateral and caudal fins respectively. The value of redness (a*) in the anterolateral region was higher in T2 and T3 (p < 0.05). The anterolateral red index was higher (p < 0.05) in T2 and T3, whereas in the posterolateral and caudal fins, T1 and T2 were higher (p < 0.05). Compared to C1 and C2, the hue angle in carotenoid groups was found to be low (p < 0.05). No significant change in the growth performance was noticed (p > 0.05). Immune scores such as lysozyme and alkaline protease were highest in T3 (p < 0.05), whereas protease activity was highest in T2 (80 ppm). Stress biomarkers, viz., superoxide dismutase, catalase and malondialdehyde were low in groups fed enriched Artemia (p < 0.05). The integrated biomarker response means and star plot area were lower in the enriched groups (T1-T3), while T2 was the lowest. Overall findings reveal that dietary carotenoid improves the colouration and immune status, but fail to promote growth. Furthermore, 80 ppm enrichment dose improves the overall performance. The findings can help fish keepers improve fish colour and health status through carotenoid supplementation.

Social experience influences thermal sensitivity: lessons from an amphibious mangrove fish

Understanding the factors affecting the capacity of ectothermic fishes to cope with warming temperature is critical given predicted climate change scenarios. We know that a fish's social environment introduces plasticity in how it responds to high temperature. However, the magnitude of this plasticity and the mechanisms underlying socially modulated thermal responses are unknown. Using the amphibious hermaphroditic mangrove rivulus fish Kryptolebias marmoratus as a model, we tested three hypotheses: (1) social stimulation affects physiological and behavioural thermal responses of isogenic lineages of fish; (2) social experience and acute social stimulation result in distinct physiological and behavioural responses; and (3) a desensitization of thermal receptors is responsible for socially modulated thermal responses. To test the first two hypotheses, we measured the temperature at which fish emerged from the water (i.e. pejus temperature) upon acute warming with socially naive isolated fish and with fish that were raised alone and then given a short social experience prior to exposure to increasing temperature (i.e. socially experienced fish). Our results did not support our first hypothesis as fish socially stimulated by mirrors during warming (i.e. acute social stimulation) emerged at similar temperatures to isolated fish. However, in support of our second hypothesis, a short period of prior social experience resulted in fish emerging at a higher temperature than socially naive fish suggesting an increase in pejus temperature with social experience. To test our third hypothesis, we exposed fish that had been allowed a brief social interaction and naive fish to capsaicin, an agonist of TRPV1 thermal receptors. Socially experienced fish emerged at significantly higher capsaicin concentrations than socially naive fish suggesting a desensitization of their TRPV1 thermal receptors. Collectively, our data indicate that past and present social experiences impact the behavioural response of fish to high temperature. We also provide novel data suggesting that brief periods of social experience affect the capacity of fish to perceive warm temperature.

Review of warming and acidification effects to the ecotoxicity of pharmaceuticals on aquatic organisms in the era of climate change

An increase in the temperature and the acidification of the aquatic environment are among the many consequences of global warming. Climate change can also negatively affect aquatic organisms indirectly, by altering the toxicity of pollutants. Models of climate change impacts on the distribution, fate and ecotoxicity of persistent pollutants are now available. For pharmaceuticals, however, as new environmental pollutants, there are no predictions on this issue. Therefore, this paper organizes the existing knowledge on the effects of temperature, pH and both stressors combined on the toxicity of pharmaceuticals on aquatic organisms. Besides lethal toxicity, the molecular, physiological and behavioral biomarkers of sub-lethal stress were also assessed. Both acute and chronic toxicity, as well as bioaccumulation, were found to be affected. The direction and magnitude of these changes depend on the specific pharmaceutical, as well as the organism and conditions involved. Unfortunately, the response of organisms was enhanced by combined stressors. We compare the findings with those known for persistent organic pollutants, for which the pH has a relatively low effect on toxicity. The acid-base constant of molecules, as assumed, have an effect on the toxicity change with pH modulation. Studies with bivalves have been were overrepresented, while too little attention was paid to producers. Furthermore, the limited number of pharmaceuticals have been tested, and metabolites skipped altogether. Generally, the effects of warming and acidification were rather indicated than explored, and much more attention needs to be given to the ecotoxicology of pharmaceuticals in climate change conditions.

Does Predation Exacerbate the Risk of Endosymbiont Loss in Heat Stressed Hermatypic Corals? Molecular Cues Provide Insights Into Species-Specific Health Outcomes in a Multi-Stressor Ocean

Ocean warming has been a major driver of coral reef bleaching and mass mortality. Coupled to other biotic pressures, corals’ ability for acclimatization and adaptation may become compromised. Here, we tested the combined effects of warming scenarios (26, 30, and 32°C) and predation (wound vs. no wound) in coral health condition (paleness, bleaching, and mortality), cellular stress responses (heat shock protein 70 kDa Hsp70, total ubiquitin Ub, and total antioxidant capacity TAC), and physiological state (integrated biomarker response index, IBR) of seven Scleractinian coral species, after being exposed for 60 days. Results show that although temperature was the main factor driving coral health condition, thermotolerant species (Galaxea fascicularis, Psammocora contigua, and Turbinaria reniformis) displayed increased paleness, bleaching, and mortality in predation treatments at high temperature, whereas thermosensitive species (Acropora tenuis, Echinopora lamellosa, and Montipora capricornis brown and green morphotypes) all died at 32°C, regardless of predation condition. At the molecular level, results show that there were significant main and interactive effects of species, temperature, and predation in the biomarkers assessed. Temperature affected Hsp70, Ub, and TAC, evidencing the role of protein folding and turnover, as well as reactive oxygen species scavenging in heat stress management. Predation increased Hsp70 and Ub, suggesting the activation of the pro-phenoloxidase system and cytokine activity, whereas the combination of both stressors mainly affected TAC during moderate stress and Ub under severe stress, suggesting that redox balance and defense of homeostasis are crucial in tissue repair at high temperature. IBR levels showed an increasing trend at 32°C in predated coral fragments (although non-significant). We conclude that coral responses to the combination of high temperature and predation pressure display high inter-species variability, but these stressors may pose a higher risk of endosymbiont loss, depending on species physiology and stress intensity.

Sex-specific thermal tolerance limits in the ditch shrimp Palaemon varians: Eco-evolutionary implications under a warming ocean

As global temperatures continue to rise due to global change, marine heatwaves are also becoming more frequent and intense, impacting marine biodiversity patterns worldwide. Organisms inhabiting shallow water environments, such as the commercially relevant ditch shrimp Palaemon varians, are expected to be the most affected by rising temperatures. Thus, addressing species' thermal ecology and climate extinction-risk is crucial to foster climate-smart conservation strategies for shallow water ecosystems. Here, we estimated sex-specific upper thermal tolerance limits for P. varians via the Critical Thermal Maximum method (CTmax), using loss of equilibrium as endpoint. We further calculated thermal safety margins for males and females and tested for correlations between upper thermal limits and shrimps' body size. To determine sex-biased variation in P. varians' traits (CTmax, weight and length), we compared trait variation between females and males through the coefficient of variation ratio (lnCVR). Females displayed an average CTmax value 1.8% lower than males (CTmax_females = 37.0 °C vs CTmax_males = 37.7 °C). This finding may be related to the larger body size exhibited by females (156% heavier and 39% larger than males), as both length and weight had a significant effect on CTmax. The high energetic investment of females in offspring may also contribute to the differences recorded in thermal tolerance. Overall, organisms with a smaller body-size displayed a greater tolerance to elevated temperature, thus suggesting that smaller individuals may be positively selected in warmer environments. This selection may result in a reduction of size-at-maturity and shifts in sex ratio, given the sexual dimorphism in body size of shrimps. The thermal safety margin of P. varians was narrow (∼2.2 °C for males and ∼1.5 °C for females), revealing the vulnerability of this species to ocean warming and heatwaves.

Study on Spatiotemporal Evolution of the Yellow River Delta Coastline from 1976 to 2020

The Yellow River Delta in China is the most active one for sea–land changes over all deltas worldwide, and its coastline evolution is critical to urban planning and environmental sustainability in coastal areas. Existing studies rarely used yearly temporal resolution, and lack more detailed and quantitative analysis of coastline evolution characteristics. This paper used visual interpretation to extract the coastline of the Yellow River Delta in year interval Landsat images for 45 years from 1976 to 2020, and analyzed the spatiotemporal characteristics of the coastline evolution through statistical methods such as calculating change values and change rate. The main results are as follows: (1) overall, the coastline of the Yellow River Delta presented a spatial pattern involving northern landward retreat and southern seaward expansion. Since 1990, the Yellow River Delta has entered a period of decline. In addition, the length of the artificial coastline increased by about 55 km; (2) in the Qingshuigou region, the land area and the coastline length increased first and then stabilized. The southeastern part of the Qingshuigou was in a state of erosion, while the northeastern part was expanding toward the sea along the north direction; (3) in the Diaokou region, the land area has been decreasing, but the reduction rate has gradually slowed down. The main conclusions are as follows: (1) through the research on the evolution model and mechanism of the coastline of the Yellow River Delta, it was found that human factors and natural factors were the two major driving factors that affect the evolution of the coastline; (2) a river branch appeared in the northern part of the Qingshuigou region in 2014 and became a major branch in 2020, which would affect the development of the coastal region of Chengdao. This study is important for better understanding the evolution pattern of the Yellow River Delta coastline and will help to provide guidance for coastline management and resource exploitation.

Salinity shapes the stress responses and energy reserves of marine polychaetes exposed to warming: From molecular to functional phenotypes

Estuarine systems are critical transition zones influenced by sea, land and freshwater. An array of human activities impacts these areas leading to multiple-stressor interactions. Temperature and salinity are among the most relevant drivers in estuaries, shaping species growth, reproduction and distribution. However, few studies provide an overview of cellular rewiring processes under multiple-stressor environments. Here, we tested how salinity could shape the response of ragworms Hediste diversicolor, an important bioindicator and commercial species, to elevated temperature. We exposed polychaetes to three temperatures for a month, simulating control, ocean warming and heatwave conditions (24, 27 and 30 °C, respectively) combined with two salinities (20 and 30). We quantified whole-organism performance (wet weight gain and survival), along with cellular stress response (CSR) and energy reserves of worms after 14 and 28 days of exposure. Significant three-way interactions between temperature, salinity and exposure time show the non-linearity of molecular responses. Worms at a salinity of 20 were more sensitive to warming than worms exposed to a salinity of 30. The combination of high temperature and low salinity can act synergistically to induce oxidative stress and macromolecular damage in worm tissues. This finding was supported by an induction of the CSR, with a concomitant decrease of energy reserves, pointing towards a metabolic compensation strategy. However, under a higher salinity (30), the need for a CSR upon thermal challenge was reduced and energy content increased with temperature, which suggests that environmental conditions were within the optimum range. Heatwaves striking low-salinity areas of estuaries can therefore negatively impact the cellular physiology of H. diversicolor, with greater metabolic costs. However, extreme stress levels were not reached as worms incremented wet weight and survival was high under all conditions tested. Our findings are important for the optimization of ragworm aquaculture and adaptive conservation strategies of estuarine systems.

Impacts of nanoparticles and phosphonates in the behavior and oxidative status of the mediterranean mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis)

The current study investigated the exposure of the Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) to gold nanoparticles decorated zinc oxide (Au-ZnO NPs) and phosphonate [Diethyl (3-cyano-1-hydroxy-1-phenyl-2-methylpropyl)] phosphate (PC). The mussels were exposed to concentrations of 50 and 100 µg L^-1 of both compounds alone, as well as to a mixture of both pollutants (i.e. Mix). The singular and the combined effect of each pollutant was investigated by measuring the concentration of various metals (i.e., Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn and Au) in the the digestive glands and gills of mussels, their filtration capacity (FC), respiration rate (RR) and the response of oxidative biomarkers, respectively, following 14 days of exposure. The concentrations of Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn and Au increased directly with Au-ZnO NPs in mussel tissues, but significantly only for Zn. In contrast, the mixture of Au-ZnO100 NPs and PC100 did not induce any significant increase in the content of metals in digetsve glands and gills, suggesting antagonistic interactions between contaminants. In addition, FC and RR levels decreased following exposure to Au-ZnO100 NPs and PC100 treatments and no significant alterations were observed after the exposure to 50 µg.L^-1 of both contaminants and Mix. Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) level, GSH/GSSG ratio, superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activities showed significant changes following the exposure to both Au-ZnO NPs and PC, in the gills and the digestive glands of the mussel. However, no significant modifications were observed in both organs following the exposure to Mix. The current study advances the understanding of the toxicity of NPs and phosphonates on M. galloprovincialis and sets the path for future ecotoxicological studies regarding the synergic effects of these substances on marine species. Moreover, the current experiment suggests that the oxidative stress and the neurotoxic pathways are responsive following the exposure of marine invertebrates to both nanoparticles and phosphonates, with potential antagonist interactions of these substances on the physiology of targeted species.

Variation Tendency of Coastline under Natural and Anthropogenic Disturbance around the Abandoned Yellow River Delta in 1984–2019

The coast around the Abandoned Yellow River Delta underwent significant changes under anthropogenic disturbance. This study aims to reveal the variation of the coastline, tidal flat area, and intertidal zone slope before, during, and after extensive reclamation during the period of 1984–2019 using satellite remote sensing images. In order to eliminate the influence of the varying water level, a new coastline correction algorithm had been proposed under the condition of insufficient accurate slope and water level data. The influence of seawalls on slope estimation were considered in it. The spatiotemporal evolution of coast had been analyzed and confirmed to be reasonable by comparing with the observed data. The results show that the coast can be roughly divided into a north erosion part and a south deposition part. Affected by reclamation, their tidal flat area in 2019 is reduced to only 43 and 27% of original area in 1984, respectively, which results in a continuous decrease in the tidal flat width. The adjustment of the tidal flat profile makes the slopes steeper in the erosion part, while the slopes in the deposition part remain stable. The reclamation has stimulated a cumulative effect as the disappearance of the intertidal zone, which may lead to the destruction of biological habitats.

Calcium homeostasis and stable fatty acid composition underpin heatwave tolerance of the keystone polychaete Hediste diversicolor

Extreme weather events, such as heatwaves, are becoming increasingly frequent, long-lasting and severe as global climate change continues, shaping marine biodiversity patterns worldwide. Increased risk of overheating and mortality across major taxa have been recurrently observed, jeopardizing the sustainability of ecosystem services. Molecular responses of species, which scale up to physiological and population responses, are determinant processes that modulate species sensitivity or tolerance to extreme weather events. Here, by integrating proteomic, fatty acid profiling and physiological approaches, we show that the tolerance of the intertidal ragworm Hediste diversicolor, a keystone species in estuarine ecosystems and an emergent blue bio-resource, to long-lasting heatwaves (24  vs 30 °C for 30 days) is shaped by calcium homeostasis, immune function and stability of fatty acid profiles. These features potentially enabled H. diversicolor to increase its thermal tolerance limit by 0.81 °C under the heatwave scenario and maintain survival. No growth trade-offs were detected, as wet weight remained stable across conditions. Biological variation of physiological parameters was lower when compared to molecular measures. Proteins showed an overall elevated coefficient of variation, although decreasing molecular variance under the heatwave scenario was observed for both proteins and fatty acids. This finding is consistent with the phenomenon of physiological canalization in extreme environments and contradicts the theory that novel conditions increase trait variation. Our results show that keystone highly valued marine polychaetes are tolerant to heatwaves, confirming the potential of H. diversicolor as a blue bio-resource and opening new avenues for sustainable marine aquaculture development.

An Integrated and Multibiomarker approach to delineate oxidative stress status of Bellamya bengalensis under the interactions of elevated temperature and chlorpyrifos contamination

Synergistic effects of warming on bioconcentration and receptiveness of pollutants are still poorly unravelled in conjunction with cellular and molecular responses. The present study addressed the impact of an environmental relevant dose of chlorpyrifos (organophosphate pesticide), under control (25 °C) and elevated levels of temperature (30 °C, 35 °C) in Bellamya bengalensis, a freshwater gastropod for 60 days across various endpoints. Multiple levels of biomarkers were measured: growth conditions (organ to flesh weight ratio, condition index), oxidative stress status (SOD, CAT, GST, LPO) and DNA damage (Comet assay-3^rd, 30^th and 60^th days only) after acute (24, 48 and 72 h) and long-term exposures (10^th, 20^th, 30^th, 40^th, 50^th and 60^th days). An integrated biomarker response (IBR) strategy was adapted to amalgamate results generated from various biomarkers to assess organism's vulnerability to pesticide pollution and how it may shift with warming climate. Significant changes were observed in growth conditions under longer exposure periods. Acute as well as long-term exposures enhanced the antioxidant and detoxification enzyme activity. DNA damage was extensive under longer exposure to stress howbeit was also significantly escalated under acute severe warming. Antioxidant and detoxification mechanisms fell short in counteracting cellular level damage. The IBR results indicated long-term acclimation of B. bengalensis to elevated temperatures and pesticide contamination lead to an improved tolerance level howbeit, acute stress was more detrimental. This study provided evidence for the efficiency of employing an integrated biomarker approach for B. bengalensis in future bio-monitoring studies.

Ecotoxicological responses of a reef calcifier exposed to copper, acidification and warming: A multiple biomarker approach

Multiple global and local stressors threat coral reefs worldwide, and symbiont-bearing foraminifera are bioindicators of reef health. The aim of this study was to investigate single and combined effects of copper (Cu) and climate change related stressors (ocean acidification and warming) on a symbiont-bearing foraminifer by means of an integrated biomarker analysis. Using a mesocosm approach, Amphistegina gibbosa were exposed for 25 days to acidification, warming and/or Cu contamination on a full orthogonal design (two levels each factor). Cu was the main factor increasing bleaching and respiration rates. Warming was the main cause of mortality and reduced growth. Calcification related enzymes were inhibited in response to Cu exposure and, in general, the inhibition was stronger under climate change. Multiple biological endpoints responded to realistic exposure scenarios in different ways, but evidenced general stress posed by climate change combined with Cu. These biological responses drove the high values found for the 'stress index' IBR (Integrated Biomarker Response) - indicating general organismal health impairment under the multiple stressor scenario. Our results provide insights for coral reef management by detecting potential monitoring tools. The ecotoxicological responses indicated that Cu reduces the tolerance of foraminifera to climate change (acidification + warming). Once the endpoints analysed have a high ecological relevance, and that responses were evaluated on a classical reef bioindicator species, these results highlight the high risk of climate change and metal pollution co-exposure to coral reefs. Integrated responses allowed a better effects comprehension and are pointed as a promising tool to monitor pollution effects on a changing ocean.

Mitochondrial manganese superoxide dismutase from the shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei: Molecular characterization and effect of high temperature, hypoxia and reoxygenation on expression and enzyme activity

Climate warming has been increasing ocean water temperature and decreasing oxygen concentrations, exposing aquatic organisms to environmental stress conditions. The shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei manages to survive these harsh environmental conditions by enhancing their antioxidant defenses, among other strategies. In this study, we report the mitochondrial manganese superoxide dismutase (mMnSOD) nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequences and its gene expression in L. vannamei tissues. The deduced protein has 220 amino acids with a signal peptide of 20 amino acids. Expression of mMnSOD was analyzed in hepatopancreas, gills and muscle, where gills had highest expression in normoxic conditions. In addition, shrimp were subjected to high temperature, hypoxia and reoxygenation to analyze the effect on the expression of mMnSOD and SOD activity in mitochondria. High temperature and hypoxia showed a synergistic effect in the up-regulation on expression of mMnSOD in gills and hepatopancreas. Moreover, induction in SOD activity was found in the mitochondrial fraction from gills of normoxia at high temperature, probably due to an overproduction of reactive oxygen species caused by an elevated metabolic rate due to the stress temperature. These results suggest that the combined stress conditions of hypoxia and high temperature trigger molecularly the antioxidant response in L. vannamei in a higher degree than only one stressor.

Beyond survival experiments: using biomarkers of oxidative stress and neurotoxicity to assess vulnerability of subterranean fauna to climate change

Accurate assessments of species vulnerability to climate change need to consider the physiological capacity of organisms to deal with temperature changes and identify early signs of thermally induced stress. Oxidative stress biomarkers and acetylcholinesterase activity are useful proxies of stress at the cellular and nervous system level. Such responses are especially relevant for poor dispersal organisms with limited capacity for behavioural thermoregulation, like deep subterranean species. We combined experimental measurements of upper lethal thermal limits, acclimation capacity and biomarkers of oxidative stress and neurotoxicity to assess the impact of heat stress (20°C) at different exposure times (2 and 7 days) on the Iberian endemic subterranean beetle Parvospeonomus canyellesi. Survival response (7 days of exposure) was similar to that reported for other subterranean specialist beetles (high survival up to 20°C but no above 23°C). However, a low physiological plasticity (i.e. incapacity to increase heat tolerance via acclimation) and signs of impairment at the cellular and nervous system level were observed after 7 days of exposure at 20°C. Such sublethal effects were identified by significant differences in total antioxidant capacity, glutathione S-transferase activity, the ratio of reduced to oxidized forms of glutathione and acetylcholinesterase activity between the control (cave temperature) and 20°C treatment. At 2 days of exposure, most biomarker values indicated some degree of oxidative stress in both the control and high-temperature treatment, likely reflecting an initial altered physiological status associated to factors other than temperature. Considering these integrated responses and the predicted increase in temperature in its unique locality, P. canyellesi would have a narrower thermal safety margin to face climate change than that obtained considering only survival experiments. Our results highlight the importance of exploring thermally sensitive processes at different levels of biological organization to obtain more accurate estimates of the species capacity to face climate change.

Molecular assessment of wild populations in the marine realm: Importance of taxonomic, seasonal and habitat patterns in environmental monitoring

Scientists are currently faced with the challenge of assessing the effects of anthropogenic stressors on aquatic ecosystems. Cellular stress response (CSR) biomarkers are ubiquitous and phylogenetically conserved among metazoans and have been successfully applied in environmental monitoring but they can also vary according to natural biotic and abiotic factors. The reported variability may thus limit the wide application of biomarkers in monitoring, imposing the need to identify variability levels in the field. Our aim was to carry out a comprehensive in situ assessment of the CSR (heat shock protein 70 kDa, ubiquitin, antioxidant enzymes) and oxidative damage (lipid peroxidation) in wild populations across marine taxa by collecting fish, crustaceans, mollusks and cnidarians during two different seasons (spring and summer) and two habitat types (coast and estuary). CSR end-point patterns were different between taxa with mollusks having higher biomarker levels, followed by the cnidarians, while fish and crustaceans showed lower biomarker levels. The PCA showed clear clusters related to mobility/sessile traits with sessile organisms showing greater levels (>2-fold) of CSR proteins and oxidative damage. Mean intraspecific variability in the CSR measured by the coefficient of variation (% CV) (including data from all seasons and sites) was elevated (35-94%). Overall, there was a seasonal differentiation in biomarker patterns across taxonomic groups, especially evident in fish and cnidarians. A differentiation in biomarker patterns between habitat types was also observed and associated with phenotypic plasticity or local adaptation. Overall, specimens collected in the estuary had lower biomarker levels when compared to specimens collected in the coast. This work highlights the importance of assessing baseline biomarker levels across taxa, seasons and habitats prior to applying biomarker analyses in environmental monitoring. Selecting bioindicator species, defining sampling strategies, and identifying confounding factors are crucial preliminary steps that ensure the success of biomarkers as powerful tools in biomonitoring.

Living in a multi-stressors environment: An integrated biomarker approach to assess the ecotoxicological response of meagre (Argyrosomus regius) to venlafaxine, warming and acidification

Pharmaceuticals, such as the antidepressant venlafaxine (VFX), have been frequently detected in coastal waters and marine biota, and there is a growing body of evidence that these pollutants can be toxic to non-target marine biota, even at low concentrations. Alongside, climate change effects (e.g. warming and acidification) can also affect marine species' physiological fitness and, consequently, compromising their ability to cope with the presence of pollutants. Yet, information regarding interactive effects between pollutants and climate change-related stressors is still scarce. Within this context, the present study aims to assess the differential ecotoxicological responses (antioxidant activity, heat shock response, protein degradation, endocrine disruption and neurotoxicity) of juvenile fish (Argyrosomus regius) tissues (muscle, gills, liver and brain) exposed to VFX (via water or feed), as well as to the interactive effects of warming (ΔT °C = +5 °C) and acidification (ΔpCO₂ ~ +1000 µatm, equivalent to ΔpH = -0.4 units), using an integrated multi-biomarker response (IBR) approach. Overall, results showed that VFX toxicity was strongly influenced by the uptake pathway, as well as by warming and acidification. More significant changes (e.g. increases surpassing 100% in lipid peroxidation, LPO, heat shock response protein content, HSP70/HSC70, and total ubiquitin content, Ub,) and higher IBR index values were observed when VFX exposure occurred via water (i.e. average IBR = 19, against 17 in VFX-feed treatment). The co-exposure to climate change-related stressors either enhanced (e.g. glutathione S-transferases activity (GST) in fish muscle was further increased by warming) or attenuated the changes elicited by VFX (e.g. vitellogenin, VTG, liver content increased with VFX feed exposure acting alone, but not when co-exposed with acidification). Yet, increased stress severity was observed when the three stressors acted simultaneously, particularly in fish exposed to VFX via water (i.e. average IBR = 21). Hence, the distinct fish tissues responses elicited by the different scenarios emphasized the relevance of performing multi-stressors ecotoxicological studies, as such approach enables a better estimation of the environmental hazards posed by pollutants in a changing ocean and, consequently, the development of strategies to mitigate them.