Responses of soil enzymatic activities to transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) crops - A global meta-analysis

Discrepancies in rhizobacterial assembly caused by glyphosate application and herbicide-tolerant soybean Co-expressing GAT and EPSPS

There are concerns that the innovation of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant (GMHT) plants, as well as the application of herbicide to such GMHT plants, could have an impact on ecological interactions and unintentionally harm non-targeted organisms. Consequently, we intend to use full-length 16 S rDNA amplicon sequencing to examine changes in the bacterial community in the rhizosphere of GMHT soybean (Z106) harboring 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase and Glyphosate N-acetyltransferase genes and GMHT soybean treated with glyphosate (Z106G). Glyphosate application significantly impacted bacterial alpha diversity (species richness, and Shannon diversity). Permutational multivariate analysis of variance of beta diversity demonstrated that soil compartments and growth stages had a substantial impact on soybean rhizobacterial communities (soil compartments, growth stages, P = 0.001). Community composition revealed that Z106G soils were abundant in Taibaiella and Arthrobacter pascens at maturity, while Chryseobacterium joostei and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia predominated in Z106 soils during flowering. Nitrogen-fixing and phosphate-solubilizing microbes were found in higher proportions in the rhizosphere than in bulk soil, with Sinorhizobium being more abundant in Z106 and Bacillus and Stenotrophomonas being more prevalent in Z106G rhizosphere soils. Collectively, our findings suggest glyphosate application and glyphosate-tolerant soybean as potential regulators of soybean rhizobacterial composition.

pH-Dependent Changes in Structural Stabilities of Bt Cry1Ac Toxin and Contrasting Model Proteins following Adsorption on Montmorillonite

The environmental fate of insecticidal Cry proteins, including time-dependent conservation of biological properties, results from their structural stability in soils. The complex cascade of reactions involved in biological action requires Cry proteins to be in solution. However, the pH-dependent changes in conformational stability and the adsorption-desorption mechanisms of Cry protein on soil minerals remain unclear. We used Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) calculation and differential scanning calorimetry to interpret the driving forces and structural stabilities of Cry1Ac and two contrasting model proteins adsorbed by montmorillonite. The structural stability of Cry1Ac is closer to that of the "hard" protein, α-chymotrypsin, than that of the "soft" bovine serum albumin (BSA). The pH-dependent adsorption of Cry1Ac and α-chymotrypsin could be explained by DLVO theory, whereas the BSA adsorption deviated from it. Patch-controlled electrostatic attraction, hydrophobic effects, and entropy changes following protein unfolding on a mineral surface could contribute to Cry1Ac adsorption. Cry1Ac, like chymotrypsin, was partly denatured on montmorillonite, and its structural stability decreased with an increase in pH. Moreover, small changes in the conformational heterogeneity of both Cry1Ac and chymotrypsin were observed following adsorption. Conversely, adsorbed BSA was completely denatured regardless of the solution pH. The moderate conformational rearrangement of adsorbed Cry1Ac may partially explain why the insecticidal activity of Bt toxin appears to be conserved in soils, albeit for a relatively short time period.

The host niches of soybean rather than genetic modification or glyphosate application drive the assembly of root-associated microbial communities

Plant roots significantly influence soil microbial diversity, and soil microorganisms play significant roles in both natural and agricultural ecosystems. Although the genetically modified (GM) crops with enhanced insect and herbicide resistance are thought to have unmatched yield and stress resistance advantages, thorough and in-depth case studies still need to be carried out in a real-world setting due to the potential effects of GM plants on soil microbial communities. In this study, three treatments were used: a recipient soybean variety Jack, a triple transgenic soybean line JD321, and the glyphosate-treated JD321 (JD321G). Three sampling stages (flowering, seed filling and maturing), as well as three host niches of soybean rhizosphere [intact roots (RT), rhizospheric soil (RS) and surrounding soil (SS)] were established. In comparison to Jack, the rhizospheric soil of JD321G had higher urease activity and lower nitrite reductase at the flowering stage. Different treatments and different sampling stages existed no significant effects on the compositions of microbial communities at different taxonomic levels. However, at the genus level, the relative abundance of three plant growth-promoting fungal genera (i.e. Mortierella, Chaetomium and Pseudombrophila) increased while endophytic bacteria Chryseobacterium and pathogenic bacteria Streptomyces decreased from the inside to the outside of the roots (i.e. RT → RS → SS). Moreover, two bacterial genera, Bradyrhizobium and Ensifer were more abundant in RT than in RS and SS, as well as three species, Agrobacterium radiobacter, Ensifer fredii and Ensifer meliloti, which are closely related to nitrogen-fixation. Furthermore, five clusters of orthologous groups (COGs) associated to nitrogen-fixation genes were higher in RT than in RS, whereas only one COG annotated as dinitrogenase iron-molybdenum cofactor biosynthesis protein was lower. Overall, the results imply that the rhizosphere host niches throughout the soil-plant continuum largely control the composition and function of the root-associated microbiome of triple transgenic soybean.

Differential assembly of root-associated bacterial and fungal communities of a dual transgenic insect-resistant maize line at different host niches and different growth stages

Transgenic technology has been widely applied to crop development, with genetically modified (GM) maize being the world's second-largest GM crop. Despite the fact that rhizosphere bacterial and fungal populations are critical regulators of plant performance, few studies have evaluated the influence of GM maize on these communities. Plant materials used in this study included the control maize line B73 and the mcry1Ab and mcry2Ab dual transgenic insect-resistant maize line 2A-7. The plants and soils samples were sampled at three growth stages (jointing, flowering, and maturing stages), and the sampling compartments from the outside to the inside of the root are surrounding soil (SS), rhizospheric soil (RS), and intact root (RT), respectively. In this study, the results of alpha diversity revealed that from the outside to the inside of the root, the community richness and diversity declined while community coverage increased. Morever, the different host niches of maize rhizosphere and maize development stages influenced beta diversity according to statistical analysis. The GM maize line 2A-7 had no significant influence on the composition of microbial communities when compared to B73. Compared to RS and SS, the host niche RT tended to deplete Chloroflexi, Gemmatimonadetes and Mortierellomycota at phylum level. Nitrogen-fixation bacteria Pseudomonas, Herbaspirillum huttiense, Rhizobium leguminosarum, and Sphingomonas azotifigens were found to be enriched in the niche RT in comparison to RS and SS, whilst Bacillus was found to be increased and Stenotrophomonas was found to be decreased at the maturing stage as compared to jointing and flowering stages. The nitrogen fixation protein FixH (clusters of orthologous groups, COG5456), was found to be abundant in RT. Furthermore, the pathogen fungus that causes maize stalk rot, Gaeumannomyces radicicola, was found to be abundant in RT, while the beneficial fungus Mortierella hyalina was found to be depleted in RT. Lastly, the abundance of G. radicicola gradually increased during the development of maize. In conclusion, the host niches throughout the soil-plant continuum rather than the Bt insect-resistant gene or Bt protein secretion were primarily responsible for the differential assembly of root-associated microbial communities in GM maize, which provides the theoretical basis for ecological agriculture.

Impact of PaGLK transgenic poplar on microbial community and soil enzyme activity in rhizosphere soil

Rhizosphere microorganisms are essential parts in maintaining soil ecological functions. Reforestation using genetically modified trees might have great potential to enhance tree production in biotic and abiotic stress, however, their long-term impact on rhizosphere microorganisms is scant. In this study, we studied soil enzyme activities and composition of rhizosphere microorganisms in 2-year-old transgenic PaGLK overexpression (OE), repressed expression (RE) and wild-type (WT) poplar (P. alba × P.berlinensis). The root exudates of PaGLK transgenic poplar (P.alba × P. berlinensis) were analyzed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). The results showed that there were significant difference for soil sucrase, urease, catalase, neutral protease and cellulase between the transgenic and WT lines at different growth periods. Alpha diversity analysis showed that bacterial community abundance and diversity for RE lines were significantly lower than WT (p < 0.05), while RE lines for fungi were significantly higher than WT lines. At the genus level, Burkholderia was the dominant group of rhizosphere bacterial community, and the relative abundance for RE was significantly higher than WT. Tomentella was the dominant group for fungi community. Serendipita for RE was significantly higher than WT and OE. Main metabolite contents of (S)-ACPA, geniposidic acid, agnuside, hydroquinone and pyranocoumarins were significantly different among transgenic lines. These results suggest that transgenic activities have effects on root exudates, rhizosphere soil enzyme activities and soil microbial community composition, but long term effects need to be further investigated.

Environmental Behaviors of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Insecticidal Proteins and Their Effects on Microbial Ecology

Bt proteins are crystal proteins produced by Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) in the early stage of spore formation that exhibit highly specific insecticidal activities. The application of Bt proteins primarily includes Bt transgenic plants and Bt biopesticides. Transgenic crops with insect resistance (via Bt)/herbicide tolerance comprise the largest global area of agricultural planting. After artificial modification, Bt insecticidal proteins expressed from Bt can be released into soils through root exudates, pollen, and plant residues. In addition, the construction of Bt recombinant engineered strains through genetic engineering has become a major focus of Bt biopesticides, and the expressed Bt proteins will also remain in soil environments. Bt proteins expressed and released by Bt transgenic plants and Bt recombinant strains are structurally and functionally quite different from Bt prototoxins naturally expressed by B. thuringiensis in soils. The former can thus be regarded as an environmentally exogenous substance with insecticidal toxicity that may have potential ecological risks. Consequently, biosafety evaluations must be conducted before field tests and production of Bt plants or recombinant strains. This review summarizes the adsorption, retention, and degradation behavior of Bt insecticidal proteins in soils, in addition to their impacts on soil physical and chemical properties along with soil microbial diversity. The review provides a scientific framework for evaluating the environmental biosafety of Bt transgenic plants, Bt transgenic microorganisms, and their expression products. In addition, prospective research targets, research methods, and evaluation methods are highlighted based on current research of Bt proteins.

Iron-carbon material enhanced electrokinetic remediation of PCBs-contaminated soil

The high toxicity and persistence of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in the environment demands the development of effective remediation for PCBs-contaminated soils. In this study, electrokinetic (EK) remediation integrated with iron-carbon material (Fe/C) was established and used to remediate PCB28 (1 mg kg^-1) contaminated soil under a voltage gradient of 1 V cm^-1. Effects of Fe/C dosage, soil type, and remediation time were investigated. The operational condition was optimized as 4 g kg^-1 Fe/C, yellow soil, and 14 d-remediation, achieving PCB28 removal efficiency of 58.6 ± 8.8% and energy utilization efficiency of 146.5. Introduction of EK-Fe/C did not significantly affect soil properties except for slight soil moisture content increase and total Fe content loss. Soil electrical conductivity exhibited an increasing trend from anode to cathode attributed to EK-induced electromigration and electroosmosis. EK accelerated the corrosion and consumption of reactive Fe⁰/Fe₃C in Fe/C by generating acid condition. Fe/C in turn effectively prevented EK-induced soil acidification and maintained soil neutral to weak alkaline condition. A synergistic effect between EK and Fe/C was revealed by the order of PCB28 removal efficiency-EK-Fe/C (58.6 ± 8.8%) > EK (37.7 ± 1.6%) > Fe/C (6.8 ± 5.0%). This could be primarily attributed to EK and Fe/C enhanced Fenton reaction, where EK promoted Fe/C dissolution and H₂O₂ generation. In addition to oxidation by Fenton reaction generated ·OH, EK-mediated electrochemical oxidation, Fe/C-induced reduction and migration of Fe/C adsorbed PCBs were all significant contributors to PCB28 removal in the EK-Fe/C system. These findings suggest that the combination of EK and Fe/C is a promising technology for remediation of organics-contaminated soil.

Trifolium repens L. regulated phytoremediation of heavy metal contaminated soil by promoting soil enzyme activities and beneficial rhizosphere associated microorganisms

Rhizosphere soil physiochemical properties, enzyme activities and rhizosphere associated microbial communities are of the central importance for modulating phytoremediation in heavy metal contaminated soil. In this study, the rhizosphere micro-ecological characteristics of phytoremediation in seven groups of contaminated soil with different heavy metal species and concentrations were examined. The results showed that heavy metal-enrichment inhibited plant growth, but enhanced both anions (Cr₂O₇^2-) and cations (Cd²⁺ and Pb²⁺) uptake with corresponding mean values ranging from 19.37 to 168.74 mg/kg in roots and 10.89-86.53 mg/kg in shoots. Trifolium repens L. planting was able to compensate the lost caused by the heavy metal on the soil organic matter, available N, available P, available K and enzyme activities as well. According to the cluster, some species like Lysobacter, Kaistobacter and Pontibacter, was significantly related to heavy metal accumulation while others such as Flavisolibacter, Adhaeribacter and Bacillus promoted plant growth. The importance of root-associated microbial community could relatively regulate plant growth and heavy metal uptake. Our study not only illustrated the correlation among rhizosphere micro-ecological parameters, and the possible mechanisms of phytoremediation regulation, but also provide clear strategy for improving the phytoremediation efficiency.

The influence of transgenic (Bt) and non-transgenic (non-Bt) cotton mulches on weed dynamics, soil properties and productivity of different winter crops

The introduction of transgenic cotton (Bt-cotton) for controlling bollworms has resulted in increased production; however, the residual effects of mulches from Bt-cotton are poorly understood. Therefore, the current study evaluated the impact of Bt and non-Bt cotton mulches on soil properties, weed dynamics and yield of winter crops sown after cotton. Three different winter crops, i.e., wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), canola (Brassica napus L.) and Egyptian clover (Trifolium alexandrinum L.) and two mulch types, i.e., Bt mulch (obtained from Bt-cotton cultivars, i.e., 'CIM-616' and 'GH-Mubarik') and non-Bt mulch (obtained from non-Bt cultivars, i.e., 'CIM-620' and 'N-414') were included in the study. The mulches were applied at a rate of 2 t ha-1 before planting the winter crops. The Bt and non-Bt mulches differentially affected soil properties, weed dynamics and productivity of winter crops. The non-Bt mulches decreased the soil bulk density and penetration resistance, while increased the soil porosity. Wheat crop increased the soil porosity, pH, available N and soil organic matter content. Overall, non-Bt mulches improved the productivity of winter crops compared with Bt mulches. The toxins released by Bt mulches lowered the weed density; however, it negatively influenced soil properties (bulk density and available nitrogen) and productivity of winter crops. Therefore, appropriate crop rotation measures may be opted for the soils cultivated with Bt-cotton to conserve soil and achieve yield sustainability for the crops sown after cotton. Nonetheless, non-Bt mulches can be used for improving soil properties and productivity of winter crops.

Comparative effects of the recovery from sulfuric and nitric acid rain on the soil enzyme activities and metabolic functions of soil microbial communities

Acid rain (AR) is a serious issue in China, particularly in the Yangtze River Delta region where the economy has undergone rapid development. Over the last few years, the composition of acid rain in the Yangtze River Delta region has gradually changed from sulfuric acid rain (SAR) to nitric acid rain (NAR) due to controls on SO₂ emissions, but increased NO_x emissions. These changes have made ecosystems more complex. For this study, we halted AR treatments in Quercus acutissima forest plots that had received simulated AR for one year and monitored them from the following February to November. We investigated their soil resident enzyme and microbial metabolic activities, as well as community functional diversity. The results revealed that AR treatments negatively affected both the soil microbial activity and soil microbial community functional diversity; however, both managed to recover over time, once the AR treatments were stopped. During the AR treatment and recovery periods, four main categories (carbohydrates, carboxylic acids, amino acids, and polymers) were dominantly utilized. The utilization of pyruvic acid, which was affected by the AR treatments, as well as d-mannitol and tween 80, accounted for changes in the peak values of the C substrate groups during the AR treatment recovery period. Finally, changes in the activities of soil enzymes recorded following AR recovery, were closely related to the utilization of six C substrate groups. Our results suggested that the recovery of soils following the cessation of NAR stress was more rapid than from SAR. Further, that short-term NAR could be easily treated during the transformation from SAR to NAR in the Yangtze River Delta region. These results might also enrich the basic data relating to post-AR treatments on the soil environment, while having significance toward guiding further studies on the recovery of ecosystems from AR.

Soil enzyme response to bisphenol F contamination in the soil bioaugmented using bacterial and mould fungal consortium

The concept of the study resulted from the lack of accurate data on the toxicity of bisphenol F (BPF) coinciding with the need for immediate changes in the global economic policy eliminating the effects of environmental contamination with bisphenol A (BPA). The aim of the experiment was to determine the scale of the previously unstudied inhibitory effect of BPF on soil biochemical activity. To this end, in a soil subjected to increasing BPF pressure at three contamination levels of 0, 5, 50 and 500 mg BPF kg^-1 DM, responses of soil enzymes, dehydrogenases, catalase, urease, acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, arylsulphatase and β-glucosidase, were examined. Moreover, the study suggested a potentially effective way of biostimulating the soil by means of bioaugmentation with a consortium of four bacterial species: Pseudomonas umsongensis, Bacillus mycoides, Bacillus weihenstephanensis and Bacillus subtilis, and the following fungal species: Mucor circinelloides, Penicillium daleae, Penicillium chrysogenum and Aspergillus niger. It was found that BPF was a controversial BPA analogue due to the fact that it contributed to the inhibition of all the enzyme activities. Dehydrogenases proved to be the most sensitive to bisphenol contamination of the soil. The addition of 5 mg BPF kg^-1 DM of soil triggered an escalation of the inhibition comparable to that for the other enzymes only after exposing them to the effects of 50 and 500 mg BPF kg^-1 DM of soil. Moreover, BPF generated low activity of urease, acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase and β-glucosidase. Bacterial inoculum increased the activity of urease, β-glucosidase, catalase and alkaline phosphatase. Seventy-six percent of BPF underwent biodegradation during the 5 days of the study.

Evaluation of Organic Substrates and Microorganisms as Bio-Fertilisation Tool in Container Crop Production

Microorganisms are only effective when adequate conditions for their survival and development are provided. Among the factors that influence its effectiveness includes the type of soil or culture substrate, which works as an energy source reserve. Therefore, a tomato and a melon crop were established in different cycles to assess the effect of the physicochemical properties of organic substrates based on coconut fibre and vermicompost in three proportions, 0:100, 40:60 and 60:40 (% v:v), on the microbial activity in the rhizosphere when the bacteria Azotobacter vinelandii, Bacillus megaterium and Frateuria aurantia were applied. Concentrations of NO3−, H2PO4−, K+ and Ca2+ in the petiole cellular extract (PCE) were quantified at 60, 90 and 120 days after transplantation (DAT) for tomato and 45 and 65 DAT for melon. We analysed dehydrogenase activity (DHA), acid phosphatase activity (FTA) and β-glucosidase activity (β-GLU). In order to maintain optimal volumetric moisture for the survival of microorganisms, automatic control was used to manage the irrigation frequency between 22%–28%. The results showed that physicochemical substrate properties, by incorporating 40% vermicompost into the coconut fibre mixture, increased enzymatic activity. Plants that were inoculated with Azotobacter vinelandii and Frateuria aurantia showed an improvement in NO3− and K+ assimilation achieving highest yields.