Management status of waste lithium-ion batteries in China and a complete closed-circuit recycling process

Opportunity and challenges in recovering and functionalizing anode graphite from spent lithium-ion batteries: A review

Recent concerns have emerged regarding the improper disposal of spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), which has garnered widespread societal attention. Graphite materials accounted for 12-21 wt % of LIBs' mass, typically contain heavy metals, binders, and residual electrolytes. Regenerating spent graphite not only alleviated the shortage of plumbago, but also contributed to the supports environmental protection as well as national carbon peak and neutrality ("dual carbon" goals). Despite significant advancements in recycling spent LIBs had been made, a comprehensive overview of the processes for pretreatment, regeneration, and functionalization of spent graphite from retired LIBs, along with the associated technical standards and industry regulations enabling their smooth implementation still needed to be mentioned. Hence, we conducted the following research work. Firstly, the pre-treatment process of spent graphite, including discharging, crushing, and screening was summed up. Next,. Subsequently, graphite recovery methods, such as acid leaching, pyrometallurgy, and combined methods were summarized. Moreover, the modification and doping approach was used to enhance the electrochemical properties of graphite. Afterwards, we reviewed the functionalization of anode graphite from an economically and environmentally friendly view. Meanwhile, the technical standards and industry regulations of spent LIBs in domestic and oversea industries were described. Finally, we provided an overview of the technical challenges and development bottlenecks in graphite recycling, along with future prospects Overall, this study outlined the opportunities and challenges in recovering and functionalizing of anode materials via a efficient and sustainable processes.

Preferential and efficient extraction of lithium under the combined action of reduction of herb-medicine residue and leaching of oxalic acid

With the increasing demand for lithium resources, the efficient recovery of lithium from spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has become the focus of social attention. Herein, a combined process of reduction roasting of herb-medicine residue (HMR) and oxalic acid (OA) leaching is proposed to improve the recovery efficiency of lithium. Due to the large amount of reducing gas produced by the pyrolysis of herb-medicine residue, the layered structure of LiNixCoyMnzO2 cathode powder can be destroyed at 650℃ for 10 min, and the cathode powder is converted into Li2CO3, Ni, Co, MnO. Moreover, about 99.6 % of Li in the roasting residue can be selectively extracted by 0.5 mol L-1 oxalic acid for 20 min. Under the combined action of HMR and OA, the extraction efficiency and kinetics of lithium are improved simultaneously. This work achieves synergistic treatment of two types of waste from the perspective of waste management for waste. Meanwhile, it provides an alternative and innovative approach for the difficult problem of low efficiency of lithium recovery from spent LIBs.

Recycling of the waste battery: Effect of waste battery on property of asphalt and environmental impact evaluation

A waste battery is a kind of hazardous solid waste, and traditional recycling methods can cause serious environmental pollution. In this paper, a pilot study was conducted to reduce the leaching of heavy metals in waste battery power (WBP) by using the wrapping effect of asphalt and explored the feasibility of adding waste battery as a modifier to asphalt. The main components of WBP are determined through microscopic experiments, and its compatibility with asphalt and microscopic mechanism are analyzed; The influence of WBP on asphalt properties are analyzed through routine tests and mixture tests; The leaching test of toxicity is used to analyze the impact of WBP and WBP modified asphalt on the environment. The experimental results indicate that WBP is mainly composed of MnO2, C, and ZnO; There are many wrinkles and grooves on the surface of WBP, which can effectively adsorb asphalt during the modification process, produce anchoring effect, and have good compatibility with asphalt; The components of waste battery adsorb the aging light components in asphalt through their folds and swelling, so that the proportion of heavy components is relatively increased, improving the property indicators of asphalt; From the perspective of engineering property, WBP modified asphalt mixture has strong resistance to deformation and water damage. The leaching concentration of heavy metal ions from bare WBP in soil seriously exceeded the standard. In contrast, when WBP was added to asphalt, the cumulative leaching concentration of heavy metal ions was significantly reduced due to the wrapping effect of asphalt, and the WBP leaching toxicity was greatly suppressed; The method of recycling waste battery and adding it to asphalt as a modifier can prevent the release of heavy metal ions from waste battery into the environment and reduce the risk of the total environmental harm to soil, groundwater and human health.

Design and simulation of a cross-regional collaborative recycling system for secondary resources: A case of lead-acid batteries

In emerging economies, a significant amount of secondary resources are recycled by the informal sector, which can seriously harm the environment. However, some previous studies of industry management policy design ignored geographical factors. This paper introduces Geographic Information Systems into an agent-based cross-regional recycling model, and employs lead-acid batteries as an example. The model quantitatively displays the evolution of recycling markets in 31 provinces in Mainland China. Results show that: (1) High subsidies can significantly increase the number of formal enterprises in the short term, but their effectiveness decreases when the proportion of government funds in subsidies is above 80% in the long run; (2) The number of illegal recycling enterprises increases by 294% in eight inland provinces (e.g., Ningxia, Xinjiang) when all funds are invested in supervision, but this number is quite small in subsidy policy scenarios; (3) In four eastern regions, including Beijing and Tianjin, the number of illegal recycling enterprises decreases by 84% if supervision is more favored than subsidy; (4) In the optimal case where spatiotemporal factors are considered in all 31 regions, illegal recycling enterprises and waste lead emissions can be reduced by 95.59% and 45.85% nationwide. Our proposed recycling model offers a detailed simulation of multiple regions and diverse stakeholders, and serves as a useful reference for targeted recovery policies. Governments in inland regions like Ningxia and Xinjiang should implement subsidy policies, while supervision policies should be implemented in developed regions like Beijing and Tianjin.

Critical factors for implementing collection target responsibility in e-waste collection in China: A DEMATEL-ISM analysis

The Collection Target Responsibility (CTR) is the direction for the proper management of e-waste reuse and recycling. Despite its potential, the CTR policy is still in its infancy in China and faces significant challenges to its effective implementation. There are a few studies that have systematically identified and analyzed the factors that influence the application of CTR to e-waste collection systems in China. This study proposes a comprehensive process that considers collection targets and behaviors to develop the critical factors (CFs) involved in e-waste collection under CTR by participants including government, manufacturers and recyclers. The Decision-making Trial and Evaluation Laboratory and Interpretative Structural Modeling (DEMATEL-ISM) method was applied to analyze these CFs. The findings show that the development of policy and regulation is the root factor influencing the implementation of CTR in China, both in terms of collection targets and behaviors. Incentives and regulation of government, collection channels, and benefits of manufacturers and recyclers are important CFs that participants consider when adopting CTR and should be prioritized. This study not only contributes to the literature on e-waste collection under CTR, but also provides valuable insights for decision-makers to improve the performance of e-waste collection practices.

Preparation and Performance of Regenerated Al2O3-Coated Cathode Material LiNi0.8Co0.15Al0.05O2 from Spent Power Lithium-Ion Batteries

In this study, LiNi_0.8Co_0.15Al_0.05O₂@x%Al₂O_3-coated cathode materials were regeneratively compounded by the solid-phase sintering method, and their structural characterization and electrochemical performance were systematically analyzed. The regenerated ternary cathode material precursor synthesized by the co-precipitation method was roasted with lithium carbonate at a molar ratio of 1:1.1, and then completely mixed with different contents of aluminum hydroxide. The combined materials were then sintered at 800 °C for 15 h to obtain the regenerated coated cathode material, LiNi_0.8Co_0.15Al_0.05O₂@x%Al₂O₃. The thermogravimetry analysis, phase composition, morphological characteristics, and other tests show that when the added content of aluminum hydroxide is 3%, the regenerated cathode material, LiNi_0.8Co_0.15Al_0.05O₂@1.5%Al₂O_3, exhibits the highest-order layered structure with Al₂O₃ coating. This material can better inhibit the production of Ni²⁺, and improve material structure and electrochemical properties. The first charge-discharge efficiency of the battery assembled with this regenerated cathode material is 97.4%, a 50-cycle capacity retention is 93.4%, and a 100-cycle capacity retention is 87.6%. The first charge-discharge efficiency is far better than that of the uncoated regenerated battery.

The Recycling of Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries: Crucial Flotation for the Separation of Cathode and Anode Materials

The recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has attracted great attention, mainly because of its significant impact on resource recycling and environmental protection. Currently, the processes involved in recovering valuable metals from spent LIBs have shown remarkable progress, but little attention has been paid to the effective separation of spent cathode and anode materials. Significantly, it not only can reduce the difficulty in the subsequent processing of spent cathode materials, but also contribute to the recovery of graphite. Considering the difference in their chemical properties on the surface, flotation is an effective method to separate materials, owing to its low-cost and eco-friendly characteristics. In this paper, the chemical principles of flotation separation for spent cathodes and materials from spent LIBs is summarized first. Then, the research progress in flotation separation of various spent cathode materials (LiCoO₂, LiNi_xCo_yMn_zO₂, and LiFePO₄) and graphite is summarized. Given this, the work is expected to offer the significant reviews and insights about the flotation separation for high-value recycling of spent LIBs.

Spent lithium ion battery (LIB) recycle from electric vehicles: A mini-review

Electrifying transportation through the large-scale implementation of electric vehicles (EVs) is an effective route for mitigating urban atmospheric pollution and greenhouse gas emissions and alleviating petroleum-derived fossil fuel reliance. However, huge dumps of spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have emerged worldwide as a consequence of their extensive use in EVs. With the increasing shortage in LIB raw materials, the recycling of spent LIBs has become a fundamental part of a sustainable approach for energy storage applications, considering the potential economic and environmental benefits. In this mini-review, we will provide a state-of-the-art overview of LIB recycling processes (e.g., echelon utilization, pretreatment, valuable metal leaching and separation). We then discuss the sustainability of current LIB recycling processes from the perspectives of life cycle assessment (LCA) and economic feasibility. Finally, we highlight the existing challenges and possibilities of LIB recycling processes and provide future directions that can bridge the gap between proof-of-concept bench demonstrations and facility-scale field deployments through mutual efforts from academia, industry, and government. It is expected that this review could provide a guideline for enhancing spent LIB recycling and facilitating the sustainable development of the field.

Two-step leaching of spent lithium-ion batteries and effective regeneration of critical metals and graphitic carbon employing hexuronic acid

Recovering precious metal ions like Co, Li, Mn, and Ni from discarded lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has significant environmental and economic benefits. Also, graphite will be in high demand in the coming years due to the development of LIBs for use in electric vehicles (EVs) and the need for it for electrodes in a variety of energy storage devices. However, it has been overlooked during the recycling of used LIBs, which resulted in resource waste and environmental pollution. In this work, a comprehensive and environmentally friendly approach for recycling critical metals as well as graphitic carbon from discarded LIBs was proposed. To optimize the leaching process, various leaching parameters were investigated by employing hexuronic acid or ascorbic acid. The feed sample was analyzed using XRD, SEM-EDS, and a Laser Scattering Particle Size Distribution Analyzer to determine the phases, morphology, and particle size. 100% of Li and 99.5% of Co were leached at the optimum conditions of 0.8 mol L^-1 ascorbic acid, a particle size of -25 μm, 70 °C, 60 min of leaching time, and 50 g L^-1 of S/L ratio. A detailed study of the leaching kinetics was carried out. The leaching process was found to be well-fitted with the surface chemical reaction model based on the findings of temperature, acid concentration, and particle size variations. To obtain pure graphitic carbon after the initial leaching, the leached residue was subjected to further leaching with various acids (HCl, H₂SO₄, and HNO₃). The Raman spectra, XRD, TGA, and SEM-EDS analysis of the leached residues following the two-step leaching process were examined to exemplify the quality of the graphitic carbon.

Literature Review on Power Battery Echelon Reuse and Recycling from a Circular Economy Perspective

Developing new energy vehicles (NEVs) is necessary to grow the low-carbon vehicle industry. Many concentrated end-of-life (EoL) power batteries will cause large-scale environmental pollution and safety accidents when the time comes to replace the first generation of batteries if improper recycling and disposal methods are utilized. Significant negative externalities will result for the environment and other economic entities. When recycling EoL power batteries, some countries need to solve problems about lower recycling rates, unclear division of echelon utilization scenarios, and incomplete recycling systems. Therefore, this paper first analyzes representative countries' power battery recycling policies and finds out the reasons for the low recycling rate in some countries. It is also found that echelon utilization is the critical link to EoL power battery recycling. Secondly, this paper summarizes the existing recycling models and systems to form a complete closed-loop recycling process from the two stages of consumer recycling and corporate disposal of batteries. The policies and recycling technologies are highly concerned with echelon utilization, but few studies focus on analyzing application scenarios of echelon utilization. Therefore, this paper combines cases to delineate the echelon utilization scenarios clearly. Based on this, the 4R EoL power battery recycling system is proposed, which improves the existing recycling system and can recycle EoL power batteries efficiently. Finally, this paper analyzes the existing policy problems and existing technical challenges. Based on the actual situation and future development trends, we propose development suggestions from the government, enterprises, and consumers to achieve the maximum reused of EoL power batteries.

Modeling the impact of nickel recycling from batteries on nickel demand during vehicle electrification in China from 2010 to 2050

China is promoting the production and use of electric vehicles (EVs) to achieve carbon neutrality. However, the shift will drive higher demand and tighter supply of nickel in China. We develop a stock-driven bottom-up dynamic substance flow analysis (SFA) model to simulate the demand trends of various EVs under 3 scenarios, the flow of nickel under 9 scenarios and the amount of recoverable nickel under 27 scenarios in China's EV industry from 2010 to 2050. The results indicate that China's current production capacity and primary reserves of nickel cannot meet the growing nickel demand, especially under the High EVs-LNCT scenarios, and closed-loop nickel recovery from EV batteries can effectively alleviate the demand-supply contradiction. In different scenarios, the annual recycling nickel could cover between 67.7 % and 96.6 % of the demand for EV batteries in 2050, and between 37.9 % and 58.1 % in terms of the cumulative quantity by 2050. When the low nickel battery technology is adopted and the recovery efficiency is rapidly improved, the recovered nickel would meet the demand for EV batteries to the highest degree. Therefore, sufficient attention should be paid to low-nickel battery technology and efficient recycling of spent EV batteries, which is of great significance to ensure the development of EV industry and the availability of nickel in China.

Current Challenges in Efficient Lithium-Ion Batteries' Recycling: A Perspective

Li-ion battery (LIB) recycling has become an urgent need with rapid prospering of the electric vehicle (EV) industry, which has caused a shortage of material resources and led to an increasing amount of retired batteries. However, the global LIB recycling effort is hampered by various factors such as insufficient logistics, regulation, and technology readiness. Here, the challenges associated with LIB recycling and their possible solutions are summarized. Different aspects such as recycling/upcycling techniques, worldwide government policies, and the economic and environmental impacts are discussed, along with some practical suggestions to overcome these challenges for a promising circular economy for LIB materials. Some potential strategies are proposed to convert such challenges into opportunities to maintain the global expansion of the EV and other LIB-dependent industries.

Waste battery disposal and recycling behavior: a study on the Australian perspective

Consumer behavior is a critical consideration for the development of sustainable waste management systems, including waste batteries, which pose a serious threat to human health and the environment if disposed of improperly. This study investigates the consumers' perspective on the waste battery collection and recycling behaviors in Australia, and analyses their implications for the development of recycling schemes. The results show that, although general awareness exists among consumers about the negative impacts of improper disposal, this awareness was not reflected during the disposal of waste batteries among the participants. Insufficient knowledge about the waste battery collection points and convenience were the most important factors affecting the inappropriate disposal behavior from most of the consumers. Over 50% of participants were unaware of the collection points for waste batteries. The most-preferred battery collection systems involved a deposit return system similar to that used for bottle recycling in the state of New South Wales (NSW) or collection at supermarkets/retailers. The most preferred methods for providing an incentive to recycle batteries were "old-for-new" battery swaps, "vouchers that could be used for other items in a store," and "cash payments." Several policy implications have been highlighted from this pioneering study that could shape the future development of sustainable waste battery management systems in Australia.

Environmental impact assessment of second life and recycling for LiFePO4 power batteries in China

The number of spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) will increase exponentially in the coming decade with the retirement of electric vehicles (EVs). There is a knowledge gap in assessing the environmental impact of different terminal disposal paths for EV LIBs in China. Here, we take representative lithium iron phosphate (LFP) power batteries as example and carry out a bottom-up life cycle assessment (LCA). The life cycle stages of battery manufacturing, use, second life and battery recycling are considered to conduct a cradle-to-grave environmental impact analysis. To investigate the environmental benefits of end-of-life (EoL) stage for LFP batteries, two EoL management scenarios are considered in this study. The first one combines second life application with battery recycling, and the second recycles the retired batteries directly after EV use. The result shows that the secondary application of retired LFP batteries in energy storage systems (ESSs) can effectively reduce the net environmental impact of LIB life cycle, especially for fossil fuel depletion. When the service life of secondary use is increased from 1 year to 10 years, the environmental benefits of different impact categories will increase by 0.24-4.62 times. For direct recycle scenario, recycling retired LFP batteries can save more than 30% of metal resources. By comparison, we find that recycling lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NCM) batteries has greater environmental benefits than recycling LFP batteries for all impact categories. When considering the environmental benefits at the EoL stage, most life cycle environmental impact is likely to be offset or even show positive benefits if more than 50% of power batteries can be reused in ESSs after retirement.

Assessment of recycling methods and processes for lithium-ion batteries

This review discusses physical, chemical, and direct lithium-ion battery recycling methods to have an outlook on future recovery routes. Physical and chemical processes are employed to treat cathode active materials which are the greatest cost contributor in the production of lithium batteries. Direct recycling processes maintain the original chemical structure and process value of battery materials by recovering and reusing them directly. Mechanical separation is essential to liberate cathode materials that are concentrated in the finer size region. However, currently, the cathode active materials are being concentrated at a cut point that is considerably greater than the actual size found in spent batteries. Effective physical methods reduce the cost of subsequent chemical treatment and thereafter re-lithiation successfully reintroduces lithium into spent cathodes. Some of the current challenges are the difficulty in controlling impurities in recovered products and ensuring that the entire recycling process is more sustainable.

Diverse-shaped tin dioxide nanoparticles within a plastic waste-derived three-dimensional porous carbon framework for super stable lithium-ion storage

Tin dioxides (SnO₂) inserted into carbons to serve as anodes for rechargeable lithium-ion batteries are known to improve their cycling stability. However, studies on diverse-shaped SnO₂ nanoparticles within a porous carbon matrix for super stable lithium-ion storage are rare. Herein, a hollow carbon sphere/porous carbon flake (HCS/PCF) framework is fabricated through template carbonization of plastic waste. By changing the doping mechanism and tuning the loading content, nano SnO₂ spheres and cubes as well as bulk SnO₂ flakes and blocks are in-situ grown within the HCS/PCF. Then, the as-prepared hybrids with built-in various morphological SnO₂ nanoparticles serve as anodes towards advanced lithium-ion batteries. Notably, HCS/PCF embedded with nano SnO₂ spheres and cubes anodes possess superb long-term cycling stability (~0.048% and ~0.05% average capacitance decay per cycle at 1 A/g over 400 cycles) with high reversible specific capacities of 0.45 and 0.498 Ah/g after 1000 cycles at 5 A/g. The ultra-stabilized Li⁺ storage is attributed to the effective mitigation of nano SnO₂ spheres/cubes volume expansion, originating from the compact SnO₂ yolk-HCS/PCF shell construction. This study paves a general strategy for disposing of polymeric waste to produce SnO₂ core-carbon shell anodes for super stable lithium-ion storage.

An overview of global power lithium-ion batteries and associated critical metal recycling

The rapid development of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in emerging markets is pouring huge reserves into, and triggering broad interest in the battery sector, as the popularity of electric vehicles (EVs)is driving the explosive growth of EV LIBs. These mounting demands are posing severe challenges to the supply of raw materials for LIBs and producing an enormous quantity of spent LIBs, bringing difficulties in the areas of resource allocation and environmental protection. This review article presents an overview of the global situation of power LIBs, aiming at different methods to treat spent power LIBs and their associated metals. We provide a critical review of power LIB supply chain, industrial development, waste treatment strategies and recycling, etc. Power LIBs will form the largest proportion of the battery industry in the next decade. The analysis of the sustainable supply of critical metal materials is emphasized, as recycling metal materials can alleviate the tight supply chain of power LIBs. The existing significant recycling practices that have been recognized as economically beneficial can promote metal closed-loop recycling. Scientific thinking needs to innovate sustainable and cost-effective recycling technologies to protect the environment because of the chemicals contained in power LIBs.

Current solid waste management strategies and energy recovery in developing countries - State of art review

Solid waste generation has rapidly increased due to the worldwide population, urbanization, and industrialization. Solid waste management (SWM) is a significant challenge for a society that arises local issues with global consequences. Thus, solid waste management strategies to recycle waste products are promising practices that positively impact sustainable goals. Several developed countries possess excellent solid waste management strategies to recycle waste products. Developing countries face many challenges, such as municipal solid waste (MSW) sorting and handling due to high population density and economic instability. This mismanagement could further expedite harmful environmental and socioeconomic concerns. This review discusses the current solid waste management and energy recovery production in developing countries; with statistics, this review provides a comprehensive revision on energy recovery technologies such as the thermochemical and biochemical conversion of waste with economic considerations. Furthermore, the paper discusses the challenges of SWM in developing countries, including several immediate actions and future policy recommendations for improving the current status of SWM via harnessing technology. This review has the potential of helping municipalities, government authorities, researchers, and stakeholders working on MSW management to make effective decisions for improved SWM for achieving sustainable development.

Advances of waste management practices in India and China along with bibliometric assessment of their research outcomes

This paper presents the progress made by India and China in the field of waste management and its disposal since l996 to 2020. To access it, bibliometric analysis has been carried out using SCOPUS linked SCImago electronic database. Different bibliometric indicators such as documents, citable documents, external and self-citations, and external and self-citations per document along with their annual corresponding growth (ACG) have been calculated in order to explore the progresses made in both the countries. China has contributed 16.3% and India 4.3% to the total documents produced worldwide during 1996-2020 in waste management with the average ACG of 26.42% and 15.37%, respectively, during the same time span. Also, the average ACG for self-citations of published research documents is more than that of external citations for both the countries. In addition to that, the average self-citation magnitude reported for China (28,475) is more than that of India (5223), whereas this trend reverses in the case of average external citation per document with values 16.9 and 28.94, respectively. Moreover, the waste management practices being followed in both countries have also been compared and also presented so that it could be beneficial for the country which is relatively not good in the same.

The Electrochemical Mechanism of Preparing Mn from LiMn2O4 in Waste Batteries in Molten Salt

The electrochemical reduction mechanism of Mn in LiMn2O4 in molten salt was studied. The results show that in the NaCl-CaCl2 molten salt, the process of reducing from Mn (IV) to manganese is: Mn (IV)→Mn (III)→Mn (II)→Mn. LiMn2O4 reacts with molten salt to form CaMn2O4 after being placed in molten salt for 1 h. The reaction of reducing CaMn2O4 to Mn is divided into two steps: Mn (III)→Mn (II)→Mn. The results of constant voltage deoxidation experiments under different conditions show that the intermediate products of LiMn2O4 reduction to Mn are CaMn2O4, MnO, and (MnO)x(CaO)(1−x). As the reaction progresses, x gradually decreases, and finally the Mn element is completely reduced under the conditions of 3 V for 9 h. The CaO in the product can be removed by washing the sample with deionized water at 0 °C.