Aquatic ecotoxicology of anticancer drugs: A systematic review

Polluted water from a storage dam (Villa Victoria, méxico) induces oxidative damage, AChE activity, embryotoxicity, and behavioral changes in Cyprinus carpio larvae

The Villa Victoria dam is one of the most important storage reservoirs in Mexico since it distributes water to more than 20 million inhabitants in the Metropolitan Zone of Mexico City. In this dam, the common carp (Cyprinus carpio) is an important food resource for the inhabitants, so the aim of this work was to evaluate the oxidative damage (lipoperoxidation, oxidized proteins, antioxidant enzymes activity and gene expression), AChE, embryotoxicity and behavioral changes in C. carpio embryos and larvae exposed to water from Villa Victoria dam for 24, 48, 72 and 96 h. The embryotoxicity was evaluated trough the General Morphology Score (GMS) and the teratogenic index. Behavioral changes in basal locomotor activity and thigmotaxis were evaluated in a DanioVision, Noldus ™. An increase in lipid and protein oxidation as well as modification of CAT, SOD and GPx enzymatic activity was observed during the exposure times. The GMS indicated a low development in the embryos, the teratogenic index was less than 1, however teratogenic effects as yolk edema, fin malformation, head malformation and scoliosis were observed. In parallel, an increase in AChE activity and gene expression was observed reflecting changes in distance traveled of the basal locomotor activity and thigmotaxis at the sampling points. In conclusion, pollutants in water from Villa Victoria dam caused oxidative damage, changes in SOD, CAT, GPx and AChE activity as well as embryotoxicity and modifications in the behavior of C. carpio larvae. This study demonstrates the need to implement restoration programs for this reservoir since, contamination in the Villa Victoria dam could eventually endanger aquatic life and human health.

Toxicogenomics of Five Cytostatics in Fathead Minnow (Pimephales promelas) Larvae

In this study, the toxicogenomic effects of five cytostatics (tamoxifen, methotrexate, capecitabine, cyclophosphamide, and ifosfamide) on fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) larvae were evaluated. Post-fertilization eggs were exposed to increasing concentrations of the drugs for six days. The expression levels of two genetic biomarkers for toxicity and four thyroid hormone-related gene pathways were measured. Interestingly, the results showed that all concentrations of the five cytostatics affect the transcription levels of both toxicity biomarker genes. Additionally, the thyroid hormone-related genes had different expression levels than the control, with the most significant changes observed in those larvae exposed to cyclophosphamide and ifosfamide. While a previous study found no effects on fish morphology, this study suggests that the five cytostatics modify subtle molecular responses of P. promelas, highlighting the importance of assessing multibiological level endpoints throughout the lifecycle of animals to understand the full portrait of potential effects of cytostatics and other contaminants.

Polymeric Amorphous Solid Dispersions of Dasatinib: Formulation and Ecotoxicological Assessment

Dasatinib (DAS), a potent anticancer drug, has been subjected to formulation enhancements due to challenges such as significant first-pass metabolism, poor absorption, and limited oral bioavailability. To improve its release profile, DAS was embedded in a matrix of the hydrophilic polymer polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP). Drug amorphization was induced in a planetary ball mill by solvent-free co-grinding, facilitating mechanochemical activation. This process resulted in the formation of amorphous solid dispersions (ASDs). The ASD capsules exhibited a notable enhancement in the release rate of DAS compared to capsules containing the initial drug. Given that anticancer drugs often undergo limited metabolism in the body with unchanged excretion, the ecotoxicological effect of the native form of DAS was investigated as well, considering its potential accumulation in the environment. The highest ecotoxicological effect was observed on the bacteria Vibrio fischeri, while other test organisms (bacteria Pseudomonas putida, microalgae Chlorella sp., and duckweed Lemna minor) exhibited negligible effects. The enhanced drug release not only contributes to improved oral absorption but also has the potential to reduce the proportion of DAS that enters the environment through human excretion. This comprehensive approach highlights the significance of integrating advances in drug development while considering its environmental implications.

Low-dose chemical stimulation and pest resistance threaten global crop production

Pesticide resistance increases and threatens crop production sustainability. Chemical contamination contributes to the development of pest resistance to pesticides, in part by causing stimulatory effects on pests at low sub-toxic doses and facilitating the spread of resistance genes. This article discusses hormesis and low-dose biological stimulation and their relevance to crop pest resistance. It highlights that a holistic approach is needed to tackle pest resistance to pesticides and reduce imbalance in accessing food and improving food security in accordance with the UN's Sustainable Development Goals. Among others, the effects of sub-toxic doses of pesticides should be considered when assessing the impact of synthetic and natural pesticides, while the promotion of alternative agronomical practices is needed to decrease the use of agrochemicals. Potential alternative solutions include camo-cropping, exogenous application of phytochemicals that are pest-suppressing or -repelling and/or attractive to carnivorous arthropods and other pest natural enemies, and nano-technological innovations. Moreover, to facilitate tackling of pesticide resistance in poorer countries, less technology-demanding and low-cost practices are needed. These include mixed cropping systems, diversification of cultures, use of 'push-pull cropping', incorporation of flower strips into cultivations, modification of microenvironment, and application of beneficial microorganisms and insects. However, there are still numerous open questions, and more research is needed to address the ecological and environmental effects of many of these potential solutions, with special reference to trophic webs.

Degradation performance and potential protection mechanism of the anammox consortia in response to capecitabine

The potential risks of anti-cancer drugs such as capecitabine have attracted considerable attention due to their continuous release. Understanding the response of removal performance and protective mechanism to the presence of emerging contaminants is crucial for the application of anammox techniques in wastewater treatment. Capecitabine affected the nitrogen removal performance slightly in the activity experiment. Due to bio-adsorption and biodegradation, up to 64-70% of the capecitabine can be removed effectively. However, 10 mg/L of capecitabine significantly decreased the removal efficiency of capecitabine and total nitrogen at repeated load of capecitabine. Metabolomic analysis revealed the metabolites 5'-deoxy-5-fluorocytidine and alpha-fluoro-beta-alanine, while metagenomic analysis confirmed the biodegradation pathway and underlying gene distribution. The potentially protective mechanisms of the system against capecitabine were the increased heterotrophic bacteria and secretion of sialic acid. Blast analysis confirmed the presence of potential genes involved in the complete biosynthesis pathway of sialic acid in anammox bacteria, some of which are also found in Nitrosomonas, Thauera, and Candidatus Promineofilum.

Evaluation of Dithiocarbamate-Modified Silica for Cisplatin Removal from Water

Despite the globally increasing use of platinum-based cytostatic drugs in the treatment of several types of cancer, only limited attention has been paid to developing a treatment for contaminated liquid samples originating from hospitals, laboratories and manufacturing facilities before and after their administration. In this work, we assess the efficiency of a low-cost adsorbent material, a dithiocarbamate-functionalized silica, in removing cisplatin from a solution containing it in the 0.5–150 mg L−1 concentration range. The advantage of having a surface-functionalized silica is that adsorption can occur by either non-covalent interaction or surface complexation. In the latter case platinum(II) is de-complexed and the original drug is no longer present. Adsorption occurs through a first rapid step, followed by a second slower process. This is likely due to the fact that in our operating conditions (0.9% w/v NaCl), only the original compound is present, for which ligand substitution is known to proceed slowly. The interesting performance, even at low metal concentration, and facile synthesis of the material mean it could be adapted for other applications where the recycling of platinum can be realized.

Multigenerational responses in the Lymnaea stagnalis freshwater gastropod exposed to diclofenac at environmental concentrations

Over the last decade, there has been increased concern about the occurrence of diclofenac (DCF) in aquatic ecosystems. Living organisms could be exposed to this "pseudo-persistent" pharmaceutical for more than one generation. In this multigenerational study, we assessed the DCF impact at environmentally relevant concentrations on the life history and behavioral parameters of two offspring generations (F1 and F2) of the Lymnaea stagnalis freshwater gastropod. Snail growth was affected by DCF in the F1 generation, with increased shell sizes of juveniles exposed to 0.1 µg L ^- 1 concentration and a decreased shell size at 2 and 10 µg L ^- 1. DCF also lowered food intake, enhanced locomotion activity and reduced the number of eggs/egg mass in the F1 generation. For the F2 generation, shorter time to hatch, faster growth, increased food intake and production of more egg masses/snail were induced by DCF exposure at 10 µg L ^- 1. Over time, DCF exposure led to maximization of L. stagnalis reproductive function. These results show that multigenerational studies are crucial to reveal adaptive responses to chronic contaminant exposure, which are not observable after short-term exposure.

Environmental Hazard of Anticancer Drugs: State of the Art and Future Perspective for Marine Organisms

Pharmaceutical compounds represent a class of emerging contaminants present in the environment. Their intense (and increasing) use in human and veterinary medicine leads to their discharge, mainly via human excretion, into wastewater treatment plants where their removal is inefficient. A specific class of pharmaceuticals used to fight cancer, known as antineoplastic or anticancer drugs, has gained increased attention regarding their possible environmental hazard due to their pharmacological properties, which include the nonselective targeting of DNA replication mechanisms and cell division processes, potentially inducing cell apoptosis. To date, there is limited information concerning the effects of anticancer drugs and/or their metabolites in species inhabiting freshwater environments, let alone marine and estuarine compartments. In the present review, we aimed to assemble information regarding the impact that anticancer drugs have on biological traits of marine species, to identify gaps in the current environmental hazard assessment, and to make recommendations to promote an efficient environmental hazard assessment of anticancer drugs in the marine environment. Environ Toxicol Chem 2022;41:1793-1807. © 2022 SETAC.

The Dark Side of Platinum Based Cytostatic Drugs: From Detection to Removal

The uncontrolled release of pharmaceutical drugs into the environment raised serious concerns in the last decades as they can potentially exert adverse effects on living organisms even at the low concentrations at which they are typically found. Among them, platinum based cytostatic drugs (Pt CDs) are among the most used drugs in cancer treatments which are administered via intravenous infusion and released partially intact or as transformation products. In this review, the studies on environmental occurrence, transformation, potential ecotoxicity, and possible treatment for the removal of platinum cytostatic compounds are revised. The analysis of the literature highlighted the generally low total platinum concentration values (from a few tens of ng L−1 to a few hundred μg L−1) found in hospital effluents. Additionally, several studies highlighted how hospitals are sources of a minor fraction of the total Pt CDs found in the environment due to the slow excretion rate which is longer than the usual treatment durations. Only some data about the impact of the exposure to low levels of Pt CDs on the health of flora and fauna are present in literature. In some cases, adverse effects have been shown to occur in living organisms, even at low concentrations. Further ecotoxicity data are needed to support or exclude their chronic effects on the ecosystem. Finally, fundamental understanding is required on the platinum drugs removal by MBR, AOPs, technologies, and adsorption.