Effects of composting on the fate of doxycycline, microbial community, and antibiotic resistance genes in swine manure and broiler manure

Distribution of antibiotic resistance genes and their pathogen hosts in duck farm environments in south-east coastal China

Livestock farms are major reservoirs of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) that are discharged into the environment. However, the abundance, diversity, and transmission of ARGs in duck farms and its impact on surrounding environments remain to be further explored. Therefore, the characteristics of ARGs and their bacterial hosts from duck farms and surrounding environment were investigated by using metagenomic sequencing. Eighteen ARG types which consist of 823 subtypes were identified and the majority conferred resistance to multidrug, tetracyclines, aminoglycosides, chloramphenicols, MLS, and sulfonamides. The floR gene was the most abundant subtype, followed by sul1, tetM, sul2, and tetL. ARG abundance in fecal sample was significantly higher than soil and water sample. Our results also lead to a hypothesis that Shandong province have been the most contaminated by ARGs from duck farm compared with other four provinces. PcoA results showed that the composition of ARG subtypes in water and soil samples was similar, but there were significant differences between water and feces samples. However, the composition of ARG subtypes were similar between samples from five provinces. Bacterial hosts of ARG subtypes were taxonomically assigned to eight phyla that were dominated by the Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, and Actinobacteria. In addition, some human bacterial pathogens could be enriched in duck feces, including Enterococcus faecium, Acinetobacter baumannii, and Staphylococcus aureus, and even serve as the carrier of ARGs. The combined results indicate that a comprehensive overview of the diversity and abundance of ARGs, and strong association between ARGs and bacterial community shift proposed, and benefit effective measures to improve safety of antibiotics use in livestock and poultry farming. KEY POINTS: • ARG distribution was widespread in the duck farms and surroundings environment • ARG abundance on the duck farms was significantly higher than in soil and water • Human bacterial pathogens may serve as the vectors for ARGs.

Ceftiofur in swine manure contributes to reducing pathogens and antibiotic resistance genes during composting

Aerobic composting is a common way for the disposal of feces produced in animal husbandry, and can reduce the release of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) from feces into the environment. In this study, we collected samples from two distinct treatments of swine manure compost with and without ceftiofur (CEF), and identified the ARGs, mobile genetic elements (MGEs), and bacterial community by metagenomic sequencing. The impacts of CEF on the bacterial community composition and fate of ARGs and MGEs were investigated. With increasing composting temperature and pH, the concentration of CEF in the manure decreased rapidly, with a degradation half-life of 1.12 d and a 100% removal rate after 10 d of aerobic composting. Metagenomics demonstrated that CEF in the manure might inhibit the growth of Firmicutes and Proteobacteria, thereby reducing some ARGs and MGEs hosted by these two bacteria, which was further confirmed by the variations of ARGs and MGEs. A further redundancy analysis suggested that pH and temperature are key environmental factors affecting ARG removal during composting, and intI1 and bacterial communities also have significant influence on ARG abundance. These results are of great significance for promoting the removal of some ARGs from animal manure by controlling some key environmental factors and the type of antibiotics used in animals.

Multiomics analysis of the effects of manure-borne doxycycline combined with oversized fiber microplastics on pak choi growth and the risk of antibiotic resistance gene transmission

In this study, oversized microplastics (OMPs) were intentionally introduced into soil containing manure-borne doxycycline (DOX). This strategic approach was used to systematically examine the effects of combined OMP and DOX pollution on the growth of pak choi, analyze alterations in soil environmental metabolites, and explore the potential migration of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). The results revealed a more pronounced impact of DOX than of OMPs. Slender-fiber OMPs (SF OMPs) had a more substantial influence on the growth of pak choi than did coarse-fiber OMPs (CF OMPs). Conversely, CF OMPs had a more significant effect on the migration of ARGs within the system. When DOX was combined with OMPs, the negative effects of DOX on pak choi growth were mitigated through the synthesis of indole through the adjustment of carbon metabolism and amino acid metabolism in pak choi roots. In this process, Pseudohongiellaceae and Xanthomonadaceae were key bacteria. During the migration of ARGs, the potential host bacterium Limnobacter should be considered. Additionally, the majority of potential host bacteria in the pak choi endophytic environment were associated with tetG. This study provides insights into the intricate interplay among DOX, OMPs, ARGs, plant growth, soil metabolism, and the microbiome.

Deciphering and predicting changes in antibiotic resistance genes during pig manure aerobic composting via machine learning model

Livestock manure is one of the most important pools of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in the environment. Aerobic composting can effectively reduce the spread of antibiotic resistance risk in livestock manure. Understanding the effect of aerobic composting process parameters on manure-sourced ARGs is important to control their spreading risk. In this study, the effects of process parameters on ARGs during aerobic composting of pig manure were explored through data mining based on 191 valid data collected from literature. Machine learning (ML) models (XGBoost and Random Forest) were utilized to predict the rate of ARGs changes during pig manure composting. The model evaluation index of the XGBoost model (R2 = 0.651) was higher than that of the Random Forest (R2 = 0.490), indicating that XGBoost had better prediction performance. Feature importance was further calculated for the XGBoost model, and the XGBoost black box model was interpreted by Shapley additive explanations analysis. Results indicated that the influencing factors on the ARGs variation in pig manure were sequentially divided into thermophilic period, total composting period, composting real time, and thermophilic stage average temperature. The findings gave an insight into the application of ML models to predict and decipher the ARG changes during manure composting and provided suggestions for better composting manipulation and optimization of process parameters.

Community coalescence and plant host filtering determine the spread of tetracycline resistance genes from pig manure into the microbiome continuum of the soil-plant system

The spread of livestock manure-borne antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) into agroecosystems through manure application poses a potential threat to human health. However, there is still a knowledge gap concerning ARG dissemination in coalescing manure, soil and plant microbiomes. Here, we examined the fate of tetracycline resistance genes (TRGs) originating from pig manure microbiomes and spread in the soil-A thaliana system and explored the effects of microbial functions on TRGs spread at different interfaces. Our results indicate that the TRGs abundances in all microbiome continuum of the soil-A. thaliana system were significantly increased with the application of a living manure microbiome, although the addition of manure with both an active and inactive microbiome caused a shift in the microbial community composition. This was attributed to the increasing relative abundances of tetA, tetL, tetM, tetO, tetW and tolC in the system. The application of living manure with DOX residues resulted in the highest relative abundance of total TRGs (3.30×10-3 copies/16S rRNA gene copies) in the rhizosphere soil samples. Community coalescence of the manure and soil microbiomes increased the abundance of Firmicutes in the soil and root microbiome, which directly explains the increase in TRG abundance observed in these interfaces. In contrast, the leaf microbiome differed markedly from that of the remaining samples, indicating strong plant host filtering effects on Firmicutes and TRGs from pig manure. The random forest machine learning model revealed microbial functions and their significant positive correlation with TRG abundance in the microbiome continuum of the system. Our findings revealed that community coalescence is the main driver of TRG spread from manure to the soil and root microbiomes. Plant host filtering effects play a crucial role in allowing certain microbial groups to occupy ecological niches in the leaves, thereby limiting the establishment of manure-borne TRGs in aboveground plant tissues.

Removal of antibiotic resistance genes during swine manure composting is strongly impaired by high levels of doxycycline residues

Antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) are emerging pollutants that enter the farm and surrounding environment via the manure of antibiotic-treated animals. Pretreatment of livestock manure by composting decreases ARGs abundance, but how antibiotic residues affect ARGs removal efficiency remains poorly understood. Here, we explored the fate of the resistome under different doxycycline residue levels during aerobic swine manure composting. Metagenomic sequencing showed that the presence of high levels of doxycycline generally had a higher abundance of tetracycline ARGs, and their dominant host bacteria of Firmicutes, especially Clostridium and Streptococcus, also had limited elimination in composting under high levels of doxycycline stress. Moreover, high levels of doxycycline impaired the removal of the total ARGs number in finished composts, with a removal rate of 51.74 % compared to 63.70 % and 71.52 % for the control and low-level doxycycline manure, respectively. Horizontal gene transfer and strengthened correlations among the bacterial community fostered ARGs preservation at high doxycycline levels during composting. In addition, ARGs carried by both plasmids and chromosomes, such as multidrug ARGs, showed wide host characteristics and rebound during compost maturation. Compared with chromosomes, a greater variety of ARGs on plasmids suggested that the majority of ARGs were characterized by horizontal mobility during composting, and the cross-host characteristics of ARGs during composting deserve further attention. This study provided deep insight into the fate of ARGs under residual antibiotic stress during manure composting and reminded the associated risk for environmental and public health.

Acceleration of the biodegradation of cationic polyacrylamide by the coupling effect of thermophilic microorganisms and high temperature in hyperthermophilic composting

As a flocculant of sewage sludge, cationic polyacrylamide (CPAM) enters the environment with sludge and exists for a long time, posing serious threats to the environment. Due to the environmental friendliness and high efficiency in the process of organic solid waste treatment, hyperthermophilic composting (HTC) has received increasing attention. However, it is still unclear whether the HTC process can effectively remove CPAM from sludge. In this study, the effects of HTC and conventional thermophilic composting (CTC) on CPAM in sludge were compared and analyzed. At the end of HTC and CTC, the concentrations of CPAM were 278.96 mg kg-1 and 533.89 mg kg-1, respectively, and the removal rates were 72.17% and 46.61%, respectively. The coupling effect of thermophilic microorganisms and high temperature improved the efficiency of HTC and accelerated the biodegradation of CPAM. The diversity and composition of microbial community changed dramatically during HTC. Geobacillus, Thermobispora, Pseudomonas, Brevundimonas, and Bacillus were the dominant bacteria responsible for the high HTC efficiency. To our knowledge, this is the first study in which CPAM-containing sludge is treated using HTC. The ideal performance and the presence of key microorganisms revealed that HTC is feasible for the treatment of CPAM-containing sludge.

Composting municipal solid waste and animal manure in response to the current fertilizer crisis - a recent review

The dynamic price increases of fertilizers and the generation of organic waste are currently global issues. The growth of the population has led to increased production of solid municipal waste and a higher demand for food. Food production is inherently related to agriculture and, to achieve higher yields, it is necessary to replenish the soil with essential minerals. A synergistic approach that addresses both problems is the implementation of the composting process, which aligns with the principles of a circular economy. Food waste, green waste, paper waste, cardboard waste, and animal manure are promising feedstock materials for the extraction of valuable compounds. This review discusses key factors that influence the composting process and compares them with the input materials' parameters. It also considers methods for optimizing the process, such as the use of biochar and inoculation, which result in the production of the final product in a significantly shorter time and at lower financial costs. The applications of composts produced from various materials are described along with associated risks. In addition, innovative composting technologies are presented.

Effect of biochar with various pore characteristics on heavy metal passivation and microbiota development during pig manure composting

Understanding the porosity of biochar (BC) that promotes the heavy metal (HM) passivation during composting can contribute to the sustainable management of pig manure (PM). The current work aimed to explore the influence of BC with varying pore sizes on the physicochemical properties and morphological changes of HMs (including Zn, Cu, Cr, As, and Hg), and microbiota development during PM composting. The various pore sizes of BC were generated by pyrolyzing pine wood at 400 (T1), 500 (T2), 600 (T3) and 700 (T4) °C, respectively. The results revealed a positive correlation between specific surface area of BC and pyrolysis temperature. BC addition contributed to a significantly extended compost warming rate and duration of high-temperature period, as well as HM passivation, reflected in the decrease in Exc-Zn (63-34%) and Red-Cu (28-13%) content, and the conversion of Oxi-Cr (29-21%) and Red-Hg (16-5%) to more stable forms. Moreover, BC at T4 exhibited the best effect on Zn and Cu passivation due to the highest specific surface area (380.03 m2/g). In addition to its impact on HM passivation, BC addition improved the microbial environment during PM composting, leading to enhanced microbial diversity and richness. Notably, Chloroflexi and Bacteroidota played key roles in promoting the transformation of Exc-Cu and Red-Hg into stable forms. This phenomenon further stimulated the enhanced decomposition of organic matter (OM) when BC prepared at 600-700 °C was added. Therefore, it can be concluded that the regulation of BC porosity is an effective strategy to improve HM passivation and the overall effectiveness of PM composting.

Effects of oxytetracycline on variation in intracellular and extracellular antibiotic resistance genes during swine manure composting

This research aimed to investigate the alterations in extracellular (eARGs) and intracellular (iARGs) antibiotic resistance genes in response to oxytetracycline (OTC), and unravel the dissemination mechanism of ARGs during composting. The findings revealed both low (L-OTC) and high contents (H-OTC) of OTC significantly enhanced absolute abundance (AA) of iARGs (p < 0.05), compared to CK (no OTC). Composting proved to be a proficient strategy for removing eARGs, while AA of eARGs was significantly enhanced in H-OTC (p < 0.05). OTC resulted in an increase in AA of mobile genetic elements (MGEs), ATP levels, antioxidant and DNA repair enzymes in bacteria in compost product. Structural equation model further demonstrated that OTC promoted bacterial DNA repair and antioxidant enzyme activities, altered bacterial community and enhanced MGEs abundance, thereby facilitating iARGs dissemination. This study highlights OTC can increase eARGs and iARGs abundance, underscoring the need for appropriate countermeasures to mitigate potential hazards.

Antibiotics and antibiotic resistance gene dynamics in the composting of antibiotic fermentation waste - A review

Fate of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) during composting of antibiotic fermentation waste (AFW) is a major concern. This review article focuses on recent literature published on this subject. The key findings are that antibiotics can be removed effectively during AFW composting, with higher temperatures, appropriate bulking agents, and suitable pretreatments improving their degradation. ARGs dynamics during composting are related to bacteria and mobile genetic elements (MGEs). Higher temperatures, suitable bulking agents and an appropriate C/N ratio (30:1) lead to more efficient removal of ARGs/MGEs by shaping the bacterial composition. Keeping materials dry (moisture less than 30%) and maintaining pH stable around 7.5 after composting could inhibit the rebound of ARGs. Overall, safer utilization of AFW can be realized by optimizing composting conditions. However, further removal of antibiotics and ARGs at low levels, degradation mechanism of antibiotics, and spread mechanism of ARGs during AFW composting require further investigation.

Risk characteristics of resistome coalescence in irrigated soils and effect of natural storage of irrigation materials on risk mitigation

Irrigation and fertilization are the routinely agricultural practices but also cause resistome coalescence, by which the entire microbiomes from irrigation materials invade soil microbial community, to transfer antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in the coalesced soils. Although studies have reported the effect of irrigation or fertilization on the prevalence and spread of ARGs in soils, risk characteristics of resistome coalescence in irrigation system remain to be demonstrated and few has shown whether natural storage of irrigation materials will reduce resistance risks. To fill the gaps, two microscopic experiments were conducted for deeply exploring resistance risks in the soils irrigated with wastewater and manure fertilizer from a perspective of community coalescence by metagenomic analysis, and to reveal the effect of natural storage of irrigation materials on the reduction of resistance risks in the coalesced soils. Results showed irrigation and coalescence significantly increased the abundance and diversity of ARGs in the soils, and introduced some emerging resistance genes into the coalesced community, including mcr-type, tetX, qacB, and an array of genes conferring resistance to carbapenem. Procrustes analysis demonstrated microbial community was significantly correlated with the ARGs in coalesced soils, and variance partitioning analysis quantified its dominant role on shaping resistome profile in the environment. Besides ARGs, abundant and diverse mobile genetic elements (MGEs) were also identified in the coalesced soils and co-existed on the ARG-carrying contigs, implying potential transfer risk of ARGs in the irrigation system. Further, the analysis of metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) confirmed the risk by recovering 358 ARGs-carrying MAGs and identifying the resistant bacteria that co-carried multiple ARGs and MGEs. As expected, the natural storage of irrigation water and manure fertilizer reduced about 27%-54% of ARGs, MGEs and virulence factors in the coalesced soils, thus caused the soils to move towards lower resistance risks to a certain extent.

Land-derived wastewater facilitates antibiotic resistance contamination in marine sediment of semi-closed bay: A case study in Jiaozhou Bay, China

The emergence of antibiotic resistance is a severe threat to public health. There are few studies on the effects of sewage discharge on antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) contamination in Jiaozhou Bay sediment. Herein, a total of 281 ARG subtypes, 10 mobile genetic elements (MGEs), 10 antibiotics and bacterial communities in marine sediments from Jiaozhou Bay were characterized. Similar bacterial community structures and ARG profiles were identified between the various sampling sites inside the bay, which were both dominated by multidrug and (fluoro)quinolone resistance genes and harbored lower relative abundances of ARGs than those in the sampling sites near the bay exit. Compared with antibiotics and MGEs, bacterial community composition was a more important driver of ARG diversity and geographic distribution. The abundance of pathogens carrying genetic information increased dramatically in southern Jiaozhou Bay is affected by sewage discharge, which indicating that wastewater discharge facilitated ARG contamination of marine sediments. This study highlights the risk of disseminating antibiotic resistance-influencing factors from treated wastewater discharge into marine environment there is an urgent need to optimize or improve wastewater treatment processes to enhance the removal of antibiotics and ARGs. This study has necessary implications for filling the gap in information on antibiotic resistance in Jiaozhou Bay and developing future pollution regulation and control measures.

Microbial Risks Caused by Livestock Excrement: Current Research Status and Prospects

Livestock excrement is a major pollutant yielded from husbandry and it has been constantly imported into various related environments. Livestock excrement comprises a variety of microorganisms including certain units with health risks and these microorganisms are transferred synchronically during the management and utilization processes of livestock excrement. The livestock excrement microbiome is extensively affecting the microbiome of humans and the relevant environments and it could be altered by related environmental factors as well. The zoonotic microorganisms, extremely zoonotic pathogens, and antibiotic-resistant microorganisms are posing threats to human health and environmental safety. In this review, we highlight the main feature of the microbiome of livestock excrement and elucidate the composition and structure of the repertoire of microbes, how these microbes transfer from different spots, and they then affect the microbiomes of related habitants as a whole. Overall, the environmental problems caused by the microbiome of livestock excrement and the potential risks it may cause are summarized from the microbial perspective and the strategies for prediction, prevention, and management are discussed so as to provide a reference for further studies regarding potential microbial risks of livestock excrement microbes.

Antibiotic resistome associated with influencing factors in industrial-scale organic waste aerobic composting plants

This study investigated the fate of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and bacterial evolution in six industrial-scale organic wastes aerobic composting plants and identified key factors driving ARGs dynamics. A total of 226 ARGs and 46 mobile genetic elements (MGEs), mainly resistant to aminoglycoside and MLSB, were detected by high-throughput qPCR. Briefly, aerobic composting showed good performance in reducing the diversity and abundance of ARGs, where the total absolute abundance was reduced by 88.34%-97.08% except for cattle manures. Rapid composting may lead to a rebound of ARGs due to long-term storage compared to traditional composting. Hub ARGs and bacterial genera were screened out by co-occurrence patterns. As the dominant phyla in composting, the main potential hosts of ARGs were Firmicutes, Bacteroidota and Proteobacteria. Structural equation model indicated that MGEs and heavy metals were key factors affecting ARGs dynamics. In addition, nutrients and bacterial α-diversity can indirectly influence ARGs by affecting MGEs.

Evaluation of bacterial diversity in a swine manure composting system contaminated with veterinary antibiotics (VAs)

Composting has become an alternative for the treatment of organic effluents, due to its low cost, easy handling, and a great capacity for treating swine manure. As it is a biological process, many microorganisms are involved during the composting process and act in the degradation of organic matter and nutrients and also have the ability to degrade contaminants and accelerate the transformations during composting. The objective of this work was to identify microorganisms present in the swine effluent composting system, under the contamination by most used veterinary drugs in Brazil. The composting took place for 150 days, there was an addition of 200 L of manure (these 25 L initially contaminated with 17 antibiotics) in 25 kg of eucalyptus wood shavings. The microorganisms were measured at times (0 until 150 days) and were identified by the V3-V4 regions of the 16S rRNA for Bacteria, by means of next-generation sequencing (NSG). The results show seven different bacterial phyla (Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, Acidobacteria, Actinobacteria, Spirochaetota and Tenericutes) and 70 bacterial genera (more than 1% significance), of which the most significant ones were Pseudomonas, Sphingobacterium, Devosia, Brucella, Flavisolibacter, Sphingomonas and Nitratireductor. The genus Brucella was found during mesophilic and thermophilic phases, and this genus has not yet been reported an in article involving composting process. With the results obtained, the potential for adaptation of the bacterial community was observed, being under the influence of antibiotics for veterinary use.

Seasonal dissemination of antibiotic resistome from livestock farms to surrounding soil and air: Bacterial hosts and risks for human exposure

Feces in livestock farms is a reservoir of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), which can disseminate into surrounding soil and air, bringing risks to human health. In this study, seasonal dissemination of ARGs in a livestock farm and implications for human exposure was explored. The experimental results showed that ARGs abundance basically ranked as feces > soil > air, and significant seasonal dependence was observed. The total ARGs in pig feces was relatively higher in autumn (10^9.7 copies g^-1) and winter (10^10.0 copies g^-1), and lower in summer (10^5.0 copies g^-1). Similarly, the lowest total ARGs in soil and air were also observed in summer. There were correlations among ARGs, integron intI1, and bacterial community. Total organic carbon was an important factor affecting ARGs distribution in the feces, and pH and moisture content significantly affected soil ARGs. The daily intakes of integron intI1 and ARGs from air were 10°^.5 copies h^-1 and 10^2.3 copies h^-1 for human exposure, respectively. Pseudomonas was a potential pathogenic host of bla_TEM-1 in feces, Pseudomonas and Acinetobacter were potential pathogenic hosts of multiple ARGs in soil, while ARGs in air did not migrate into pathogens.

Shifts of Antibiotic Resistomes in Soil Following Amendments of Antibiotics-Contained Dairy Manure

Dairy manure is a nutrition source for cropland soils and also simultaneously serves as a contamination source of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). In this study, five classes of antibiotics including aminoglycosides, beta-lactams, macrolides, sulfonamides, and tetracyclines, were spiked in dairy manure and incubated with soil for 60 days. The high throughput qPCR and 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing were used to detect temporal shifts of the soil antibiotic resistomes and bacterial community. Results indicated dairy manure application increased the ARG abundance by 0.5-3.7 times and subtype numbers by 2.7-3.7 times and changed the microbial community structure in soils. These effects were limited to the early incubation stage. Selection pressure was observed after the addition of sulfonamides. Bacterial communities played an important role in the shifts of ARG profiles and accounted for 44.9% of the resistome variation. The incubation period, but not the different antibiotic treatments, has a strong impact on the bacteria community. Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes were the dominant bacterial hosts for individual ARGs. This study advanced our understanding of the effect of dairy manure and antibiotics on the antibiotic resistome in soils and provided a reference for controlling ARG dissemination from dairy farms to the environment.

Effects of residual monensin in livestock manure on nitrogen transformation and microbial community during "crop straw feeding-substrate fermentation-mushroom cultivation" recycling system

Although crop-livestock integration recycling systems improve nitrogen (N) utilization in agroecosystems, there are limited studies regarding impacts of residual antibiotics in livestock manure on N transformation in entire recycling system. The objective was to evaluate effects of feeding monensin on N recycling during "straw feeding-substrate fermentation-mushroom cultivation". This experiment contained 3 steps. During straw feeding, beef cattle were allocated into 2 groups and fed diets with or without monensin, respectively. During fermentation, beef cattle manure (with or without monensin) and straw (corn or wheat) and were co-fermented for 35 d to produce substrates. During cultivation, Agaricus bisporus was cultivated on 4 substrates to recycle N in the form of mushrooms. Rates of N retention during fermentation were significant higher for monensin and corn straw treatments and there was an significant interaction between straw and antibiotic on N retention rate during cultivation. However, residual monensin significantly reduced amount of recycled N during entire recycling system, due to changes in N transformation-associated enzyme activity, ammonification and denitrification plus microbial community structure and succession. Specifically, residual monensin inhibited growth of dominant bacterial phylum Bacteroidetes and fungal phylum Neocallimastigomycota, and increased bacterial phylla Actinobacteriota and Firmicutes. These alterations in functional microbes increased N retention rates but reduced mushroom yields in antibiotic treatments during cultivation. In conclusion, monensin decreased the N recycling rate in recycling system, but also reduced N losses during fermentation by inhibiting ammonification and denitrification, so, avoiding antibiotics usage is an effective strategy to improve the efficiency of recycling systems.