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Miserli K, Boti V, Konstantinou I. Analysis of perfluorinated compounds in sewage sludge and hydrochar by UHPLC LTQ/Orbitrap MS and removal assessment during hydrothermal carbonization treatment. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 929:172650. [PMID: 38649038 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.172650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2024] [Revised: 03/28/2024] [Accepted: 04/19/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024]
Abstract
Wastewater treatment plants have been recognized as important sinks for per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) because of their ineffectiveness in removing them reflecting both water and sewage sludge discharge routes. Hydrothermal treatment represents an alternative technology for treating sludge to recover energy and other valuable products. In this study, 15 PFAS were determined in sludge and hydrochar substrates using sonication-solid phase extraction procedure and analyzed using LC-Orbitrap-High Resolution-MS/MS. The method was fully validated, exhibiting very good linearity, recoveries in the range of 48 to 126 %, low detection and quantification limits with expanded uncertainty and precision below 32 % and 21.9 %, respectively. The method was applied to sludge samples from the WWTP of Ioannina city (Greece), as well as to hydrothermally treated samples under various conditions. The most abundant PFAS were PFHxA (0.5-38.3 ng g-1) and PFOS (4.4-22.1 ng g-1). Finally, the hydrothermally treated sludge samples spiked with PFAS presented removal efficiencies for total PFAS of 86.9 %, 91.8 % and 95.7 % at three spiking levels namely 10, 50 and 200 ng g-1, respectively. Results indicated that PFCAs were almost completely removed, except for PFOA, while the concentrations of PFSAs increased in the produced hydrochar with the formation of several intermediates, as detected by HR-LC-MS/MS. The results of this study demonstrate the effect of hydrothermal treatment to the fate of PFAS in sewage sludge and contribute for further studies on design and scale up of hydrothermal carbonization technology as a management option for safer disposal of municipal wastewater sludge.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Vasiliki Boti
- Department of Chemistry, University of Ioannina, 45110, Greece; Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, University Research and Innovation Center, University of Ioannina, 45110, Greece
| | - Ioannis Konstantinou
- Department of Chemistry, University of Ioannina, 45110, Greece; Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, University Research and Innovation Center, University of Ioannina, 45110, Greece.
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2
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Behnami A, Zoroufchi Benis K, Pourakbar M, Yeganeh M, Esrafili A, Gholami M. Biosolids, an important route for transporting poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances from wastewater treatment plants into the environment: A systematic review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 925:171559. [PMID: 38458438 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.171559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2023] [Revised: 02/21/2024] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 03/10/2024]
Abstract
The pervasive presence of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in diverse products has led to their introduction into wastewater systems, making wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) significant PFAS contributors to the environment. Despite WWTPs' efforts to mitigate PFAS impact through physicochemical and biological means, concerns persist regarding PFAS retention in generated biosolids. While numerous review studies have explored the fate of these compounds within WWTPs, no study has critically reviewed their presence, transformation mechanisms, and partitioning within the sludge. Therefore, the current study has been specifically designed to investigate these aspects. Studies show variations in PFAS concentrations across WWTPs, highlighting the importance of aqueous-to-solid partitioning, with sludge from PFOS and PFOA-rich wastewater showing higher concentrations. Research suggests biological mechanisms such as cytochrome P450 monooxygenase, transamine metabolism, and beta-oxidation are involved in PFAS biotransformation, though the effects of precursor changes require further study. Carbon chain length significantly affects PFAS partitioning, with longer chains leading to greater adsorption in sludge. The wastewater's organic and inorganic content is crucial for PFAS adsorption; for instance, higher sludge protein content and divalent cations like calcium and magnesium promote adsorption, while monovalent cations like sodium impede it. In conclusion, these discoveries shed light on the complex interactions among factors affecting PFAS behavior in biosolids. They underscore the necessity for thorough considerations in managing PFAS presence and its impact on environmental systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Behnami
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Research Center for Environmental Health Technology, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Khaled Zoroufchi Benis
- Department of Process Engineering and Applied Science, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Mojtaba Pourakbar
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Maragheh University of Medical Sciences, Maragheh, Iran; Health and Environment Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Mojtaba Yeganeh
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Research Center for Environmental Health Technology, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali Esrafili
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Research Center for Environmental Health Technology, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Mitra Gholami
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Research Center for Environmental Health Technology, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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3
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Nguyen HT, Thai PK, Kaserzon SL, O'Brien JW, Mueller JF. Nationwide occurrence and discharge mass load of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in effluent and biosolids: A snapshot from 75 wastewater treatment plants across Australia. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 470:134203. [PMID: 38581874 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.134203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2023] [Revised: 03/26/2024] [Accepted: 04/01/2024] [Indexed: 04/08/2024]
Abstract
Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) have been recognized as secondary sources of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) released into the environment. In this study, PFAS concentrations were measured in effluent and biosolids samples collected from 75 WWTPs across Australia during the 2016 Census period, which covers more than half of the Australian population. Twelve PFAS compounds, including six C5-C10 perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs), four perfluoro sulfonic acids (PFSAs) such as perfluorobutane sulfonate (PFBS), perfuorohexane sulfonic (PFHxS), perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), and perfluorodecane sulfonic acid (PFDS), and one fluorotelomer sulfonic acid (6:2 FTS), were detected in the effluent, with concentrations up to 504 ng/L (PFHxS). Among these, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA), and perfluoropentanic acid (PFPeA) exhibited the highest median concentrations. In the biosolids, a total of 21 PFAS compounds were detected, encompassing ten C4-C14 PFCAs, four PFSAs, two FTS (6:2 and 8:2 FTS), perfluorooctane sulfonamide (PFOSA), two perfluorooctane sulfonamido acetic acid (NMethyl FOSAA and NEthyl FOSAA), and two perfluorooctane sulfonamido ethanol (FOSE), with dry weight (dw) concentrations approaching 235 ng/g (PFOS). The highest median and mean concentrations were observed for perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA) and PFOS. An annual discharge of approximately 250 kg of the total 21 PFAS compounds was estimated through the effluent and biosolids of the participating WWTPs. Notably, PFOS and 6:2 FTS constituted the largest proportion of total PFAS in the WWTPs' output. While PFCAs were higher in effluent concentrations compared to influent levels across most WWTPs (92% of WWTPs for ∑8PFCAs), the concentrations of PFSAs either decreased or remained relatively stable (in 80% of WWTPs for ∑4PFSAs) throughout the wastewater treatment process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hue T Nguyen
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), the University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4102, Australia; Faculty of Environment, University of Sciences, Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City 748500, Viet Nam.
| | - Phong K Thai
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), the University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Sarit L Kaserzon
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), the University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Jake W O'Brien
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), the University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Jochen F Mueller
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), the University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4102, Australia.
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4
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Zhou T, Li X, Liu H, Dong S, Zhang Z, Wang Z, Li J, Nghiem LD, Khan SJ, Wang Q. Occurrence, fate, and remediation for per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in sewage sludge: A comprehensive review. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 466:133637. [PMID: 38306831 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.133637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Revised: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 01/25/2024] [Indexed: 02/04/2024]
Abstract
Addressing per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) contamination is an urgent environmental concern. While most research has focused on PFAS contamination in water matrices, comparatively little attention has been given to sludge, a significant by-product of wastewater treatment. This critical review presents the latest information on emission sources, global distribution, international regulations, analytical methods, and remediation technologies for PFAS in sludge and biosolids from wastewater treatment plants. PFAS concentrations in sludge matrices are typically in hundreds of ng/g dry weight (dw) in developed countries but are rarely reported in developing and least-developed countries due to the limited analytical capability. In comparison to water samples, efficient extraction and cleaning procedures are crucial for PFAS detection in sludge samples. While regulations on PFAS have mainly focused on soil due to biosolids reuse, only two countries have set limits on PFAS in sludge or biosolids with a maximum of 100 ng/g dw for major PFAS. Biological technologies using microbes and enzymes present in sludge are considered as having high potential for PFAS remediation, as they are eco-friendly, low-cost, and promising. By contrast, physical/chemical methods are either energy-intensive or linked to further challenges with PFAS contamination and disposal. The findings of this review deepen our comprehension of PFAS in sludge and have guided future research recommendations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Zhou
- Centre for Technology in Water and Wastewater, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia
| | - Xuan Li
- Centre for Technology in Water and Wastewater, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia.
| | - Huan Liu
- Centre for Technology in Water and Wastewater, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia
| | - Shiman Dong
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, Via Accademia Albertina 13, Turin 10123, Italy
| | - Zehao Zhang
- Centre for Technology in Water and Wastewater, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia
| | - Zhenyao Wang
- Centre for Technology in Water and Wastewater, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia
| | - Jibin Li
- Centre for Technology in Water and Wastewater, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia
| | - Long D Nghiem
- Centre for Technology in Water and Wastewater, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia
| | - Stuart J Khan
- School of Civil Engineering, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Qilin Wang
- Centre for Technology in Water and Wastewater, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia.
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5
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Vráblová M, Smutná K, Chamrádová K, Vrábl D, Koutník I, Rusín J, Bouchalová M, Gavlová A, Sezimová H, Navrátil M, Chalupa R, Tenklová B, Pavlíková J. Co-composting of sewage sludge as an effective technology for the production of substrates with reduced content of pharmaceutical residues. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 915:169818. [PMID: 38184247 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.169818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Revised: 11/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/29/2023] [Indexed: 01/08/2024]
Abstract
Sewage sludge is a valuable source of elements such as phosphorus and nitrogen. At the same time, heavy metals, emerging organic compounds, micropollutants (pharmaceuticals, pesticides, PCPs, microplastics), or some potentially dangerous bacteria can be present. In this study, the sewage sludge was aerobically treated by composting with other materials (co-composted), and the resulting substrate was tested for suitability of its use in agriculture. Closer attention was focused on the pharmaceuticals (non-steroidal antiphlogistics, sartanes, antiepileptics, caffeine, and nicotine metabolites) content and ecotoxicity of the resulting substrates in the individual phases of sludge co-composting. It has been verified that during co-composting there is a potential for reduction of the content of pharmaceutical in the substrates up to 90 %. The course of the temperature in the thermophilic phase is decisive. Growth and ecotoxicity experiments demonstrated that with a suitable co-composting procedure, the resulting stabilized matter is suitable as a substrate for use in plant production, and the risk of using sewage sludge on agricultural land is substantially reduced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Vráblová
- VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, CEET, Institute of Environmental Technology, 17. listopadu 15, 708 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic.
| | - Kateřina Smutná
- VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, CEET, Institute of Environmental Technology, 17. listopadu 15, 708 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic
| | - Kateřina Chamrádová
- VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, CEET, Institute of Environmental Technology, 17. listopadu 15, 708 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic
| | - Daniel Vrábl
- University of Ostrava, Faculty of Science, Department of Physics, Chittussiho 10, 710 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic
| | - Ivan Koutník
- VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, CEET, Institute of Environmental Technology, 17. listopadu 15, 708 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic
| | - Jiří Rusín
- VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, CEET, Institute of Environmental Technology, 17. listopadu 15, 708 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic
| | - Markéta Bouchalová
- VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, CEET, Institute of Environmental Technology, 17. listopadu 15, 708 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic
| | - Anna Gavlová
- VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, CEET, Institute of Environmental Technology, 17. listopadu 15, 708 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic
| | - Hana Sezimová
- University of Ostrava, Faculty of Science, Department of Biology and Ecology, Chittussiho 10, 710 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Navrátil
- University of Ostrava, Faculty of Science, Department of Physics, Chittussiho 10, 710 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic
| | - Richard Chalupa
- FCC Česká republika, s.r.o., Ďáblická 791/89, 182 00 Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Barbora Tenklová
- FCC Česká republika, s.r.o., Ďáblická 791/89, 182 00 Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Jitka Pavlíková
- FCC Česká republika, s.r.o., Ďáblická 791/89, 182 00 Praha, Czech Republic
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6
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Ao J, Tang W, Liu X, Ao Y, Zhang Q, Zhang J. Polyfluoroalkyl phosphate esters (PAPs) as PFAS substitutes and precursors: An overview. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 464:133018. [PMID: 37984148 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.133018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Revised: 10/19/2023] [Accepted: 11/13/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023]
Abstract
Polyfluoroalkyl phosphate esters (PAPs) are emerging substitutes for legacy per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), which are widely applied in consumer products and closely related to people's daily lives. Increasing concern has been raised about the safety of PAPs due to their metabolism into perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and other perfluorinated carboxylates (PFCAs) in vivo. This review summarizes the current knowledge on PAPs and highlights the knowledge gaps. PAPs dominated the PFAS profiles in wastewater, sludge, household dust, food-contact materials, paper products, paints, and cosmetics. They exhibit biomagnification due to their higher levels in top predators. PAPs have been detected in human blood worldwide, with the highest mean levels being found in the United States (1.9 ng/mL) and China (0.4 ng/mL). 6:2 diPAP is the predominant PAP among all identified matrices, followed by 8:2 diPAP. Toxicokinetic studies suggest that after entering the body, most PAPs undergo biotransformation, generating phase Ⅰ (i.e., PFCAs), phase II, and intermediate products with toxicity to be verified. Several epidemiological and toxicological studies have reported the antiandrogenic effect, estrogenic effect, thyroid disruption, oxidative damage, and reproductive toxicity of PAPs. More research is urgently needed on the source and fate of PAPs, human exposure pathways, toxicity other than reproductive and endocrine systems, toxic effects of metabolites, and mixed exposure effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junjie Ao
- Ministry of Education-Shanghai Key Laboratory of Children's Environmental Health, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200092, China.
| | - Weifeng Tang
- Ministry of Education-Shanghai Key Laboratory of Children's Environmental Health, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Xiaoning Liu
- Ministry of Education-Shanghai Key Laboratory of Children's Environmental Health, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Yan Ao
- Ministry of Education-Shanghai Key Laboratory of Children's Environmental Health, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Qianlong Zhang
- Ministry of Education-Shanghai Key Laboratory of Children's Environmental Health, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Jun Zhang
- Ministry of Education-Shanghai Key Laboratory of Children's Environmental Health, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200092, China
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7
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Schlederer F, Martín-Hernández E, Vaneeckhaute C. Ensuring safety standards in sewage sludge-derived biochar: Impact of pyrolysis process temperature and carrier gas on micropollutant removal. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2024; 352:119964. [PMID: 38228044 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.119964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Revised: 12/19/2023] [Accepted: 12/24/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2024]
Abstract
The application of sewage sludge to agricultural land is facing increasing restrictions due to concerns about various micropollutants, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), dioxins and furans (PCDD/Fs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), and heavy metals (HMs). As an alternative approach to manage this residue, the use of pyrolysis, a process that transforms sludge into biochar, a carbon-rich solid material, is being explored. Despite the potential benefits of pyrolysis, there is limited data on its effectiveness in removing micropollutants and the potential presence of harmful elements in the resulting biochar. This study aims to evaluate the impact of the temperature and the use of a carrier gas (N2) during a two-stage pyrolysis and cooling on micropollutant removal. Pilot-scale tests showed that a higher temperature (650 °C) and the use of a carrier gas (0.4 L/min N2) during the pyrolysis and the cooling process led to a reduction of PAHs, PCDD/Fs, PCBs and PFAS below their detection limits. As such, the generated biochar aligns with the guidelines set by the International Biochar Initiative (IBI) and the European Biochar Certificate (EBC) for all micropollutants, except for zinc and copper. Additional investigation is required to determine whether the micropollutants undergo destruction or transition into other pyrolysis end-products, such as the gas or liquid phase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felizitas Schlederer
- BioEngine Research Team on Green Process Engineering and Biorefineries, Department of Chemical Engineering, Université Laval, 1065 Avenue de La Médecine, Québec, QC, G1V 0A6, Canada; CentrEau Water Research Center, 1065 Avenue de La Médecine, Québec, QC, G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Edgar Martín-Hernández
- BioEngine Research Team on Green Process Engineering and Biorefineries, Department of Chemical Engineering, Université Laval, 1065 Avenue de La Médecine, Québec, QC, G1V 0A6, Canada; CentrEau Water Research Center, 1065 Avenue de La Médecine, Québec, QC, G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Céline Vaneeckhaute
- BioEngine Research Team on Green Process Engineering and Biorefineries, Department of Chemical Engineering, Université Laval, 1065 Avenue de La Médecine, Québec, QC, G1V 0A6, Canada; CentrEau Water Research Center, 1065 Avenue de La Médecine, Québec, QC, G1V 0A6, Canada.
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8
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Hubert M, Meyn T, Hansen MC, Hale SE, Arp HPH. Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS) removal from soil washing water by coagulation and flocculation. WATER RESEARCH 2024; 249:120888. [PMID: 38039821 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2023.120888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2023] [Revised: 11/09/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/03/2023]
Abstract
Soil washing is currently attracting attention as a promising remediation strategy for land contaminated with per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). In the soil washing process, the contaminant is transferred from the soil into the liquid phase, producing a PFAS contaminated process water. One way to treat such process water is to use coagulation and flocculation; however, few studies are available on the performance of coagulation and flocculation for removing PFAS from such process water. This study evaluated 6 coagulants and flocculants (polyaluminium chloride (PACl), zirconium oxychloride octahydrate, cationic and anionic polyacrylamide, Polyclay 685 and Perfluor Ad®), for the treatment of a proxy PFAS contaminated washing water, spiked with PFAS concentrations found at typical Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF) contaminated sites. PFAS removal efficiencies (at constant pH) varied greatly depending on the coagulants and flocculants, as well as the dosage used and the targeted PFAS. All tested coagulants and flocculants reduced the turbidity by >95%, depending on the dosage. Perfluor Ad®, a specially designed coagulant, showed the highest removal efficiency for all longer chain (>99%) and shorter chain PFAS (>68%). The cationic polyacrylamide polymer removed longer chain PFAS up to an average of 80%, whereas average shorter chain PFAS removal was lower (<30%). The two metal-based coagulants tested, PACl and zirconium, removed longer chain PFAS by up to an average of 61% and shorter chain PFAS up to 48%. Polyclay 685, a mixture of powdered activated carbon (PAC) and aluminium sulphate, removed longer chain PFAS by 90% and shorter chain PFAS on average by 76%, when very high dosages of the coagulant were used (2,000 mg/L). PFAS removal efficiencies correlated with chain length and headgroup. Shorter chain PFAS removal was dependent on electrostatic interaction with the precipitating flocs, whereas for longer chain PFAS, hydrophobic interactions between apolar functional groups and flocs created by the coagulant/flocculant, dissolved organic matter and suspended solids played a major role. The results of this study showed that by selecting the most efficient coagulant and aqueous conditions, a greater amount of PFAS can be removed from process waters in soil washing facilities, and thus included as part of various treatment trains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michel Hubert
- Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI), NO-0806 Oslo, Norway; Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway.
| | - Thomas Meyn
- Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | | | - Sarah E Hale
- Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI), NO-0806 Oslo, Norway; DVGW-Technologiezentrum Wasser, 76139 Karsruhe, Germany
| | - Hans Peter H Arp
- Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI), NO-0806 Oslo, Norway; Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway
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9
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Baqar M, Saleem R, Zhao M, Zhao L, Cheng Z, Chen H, Yao Y, Sun H. Combustion of high-calorific industrial waste in conventional brick kilns: An emerging source of PFAS emissions to agricultural soils. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 906:167612. [PMID: 37804982 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2023] [Revised: 10/03/2023] [Accepted: 10/04/2023] [Indexed: 10/09/2023]
Abstract
The brick kilns in the South Asian region are widely documented to partially combust high-calorific waste components of synthetic-industrial origin, which contain hazardous constituents, including per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). Correspondingly, these establishments are necessarily built on agricultural land to easily acquire clay by excavating soil horizons, thus making cultivation soils vulnerable to PFAS contaminations. In this pioneering study, the occurrence, distribution profile, traceability and human health risk exposure to forty-four legacy and novel PFAS homologues, including two ultrashort-chain (C2-C3) PFAS, were investigated in agricultural soils around thirty-two conventional brick kilns across three districts of Pakistan. ⅀44PFAS concentrations ranged from 14.3 to 465 ng/g (median: 28.2 ng/g), which were 2 to 70 folds higher than those in background soils, and slightly higher than those reported in agricultural soils in the global literature. The highest occurrence was observed for PFAS alternatives, i.e., 6:2 fluorotelomer sulfonate (6:2 FTSA) (40 %) and 6:2 chlorinated polyfluorinated ether sulfonate (6:2 Cl-PFESA) (4.5 %). A significant positive correlation (p < 0.01) was observed among the concentrations of short-chain perfluoroalkyl acids (C4-C7) and novel PFOS substitutes, implying their origin from common sources. Furthermore, ultrashort-chain and short-chain perfluorocarboxylic acids (PFCA) (89 %) and perfluorosulfonic acids (PFSA) (63 %) dominated over long-chain's PFCA (11 %) and PFSA (37 %), respectively. The estimated daily intake to children exposed in surrounding inhabited communities, at 95th percentile concentrations was found to be approaching the European tolerable daily intake limit of 0.63 ng/kg bw/day. Therefore, the brick manufacturing industry is identified as a novel source of PFAS in the adjacent environment and for residents. This suggests the need for further investigations to elucidate the origin of emerging contaminants in the waste streams of the region to safeguard ecological integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mujtaba Baqar
- MOE Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China; Sustainable Development Study Centre, Government College University, Lahore 54000, Pakistan
| | - Rimsha Saleem
- Sustainable Development Study Centre, Government College University, Lahore 54000, Pakistan
| | - Maosen Zhao
- MOE Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Leicheng Zhao
- MOE Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Zhipeng Cheng
- MOE Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Hao Chen
- MOE Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Yiming Yao
- MOE Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China.
| | - Hongwen Sun
- MOE Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
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10
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Tolaymat T, Robey N, Krause M, Larson J, Weitz K, Parvathikar S, Phelps L, Linak W, Burden S, Speth T, Krug J. A critical review of perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) landfill disposal in the United States. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 905:167185. [PMID: 37734620 PMCID: PMC10842600 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2023] [Revised: 09/15/2023] [Accepted: 09/16/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023]
Abstract
Landfills manage materials containing per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from municipal solid waste (MSW) and other waste streams. This manuscript summarizes state and federal initiatives and critically reviews peer-reviewed literature to define best practices for managing these wastes and identify data gaps to guide future research. The objective is to inform stakeholders about waste-derived PFAS disposed of in landfills, PFAS emissions, and the potential for related environmental impacts. Furthermore, this document highlights data gaps and uncertainties concerning the fate of PFAS during landfill disposal. Most studies on this topic measured PFAS in liquid landfill effluent (leachate); comparatively fewer have attempted to estimate PFAS loading in landfills or other effluent streams such as landfill gas (LFG). In all media, the reported total PFAS heavily depends on waste types and the number of PFAS included in the analytical method. Early studies which only measured a small number of PFAS, predominantly perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs), likely report a significant underestimation of total PFAS. Major findings include relationships between PFAS effluent and landfill conditions - biodegradable waste increases PFAS transformation and leaching. Based on the results of multiple studies, it is estimated that 84% of PFAS loading to MSW landfills (7.2 T total) remains in the waste mass, while 5% leaves via LFG and 11% via leachate on an annual basis. The environmental impact of landfill-derived PFAS has been well-documented. Additional research is needed on PFAS in landfilled construction and demolition debris, hazardous, and industrial waste in the US.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thabet Tolaymat
- The Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Management, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, USA.
| | - Nicole Robey
- Innovative Technical Solutions, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Max Krause
- The Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Management, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Judd Larson
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Keith Weitz
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | | | - Lara Phelps
- The Center for Environmental Measurements and Modeling, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - William Linak
- The Center for Environmental Measurements and Modeling, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Susan Burden
- Office of Science Advisor, Policy and Engagement, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Tom Speth
- The Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Management, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Jonathan Krug
- The Center for Environmental Measurements and Modeling, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
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11
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Koelmel JP, Kummer M, Chevallier O, Hindle R, Hunt K, Camacho CG, Abril N, Gill EL, Beecher CWW, Garrett TJ, Yost RA, Townsend TG, Klein C, Rennie EE, Bowden JA, Godri Pollitt KJ. Expanding Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances Coverage in Nontargeted Analysis Using Data-Independent Analysis and IonDecon. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2023; 34:2525-2537. [PMID: 37751518 DOI: 10.1021/jasms.3c00244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/28/2023]
Abstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are widespread, persistent environmental contaminants that have been linked to various health issues. Comprehensive PFAS analysis often relies on ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC HRMS) and molecular fragmentation (MS/MS). However, the selection and fragmentation of ions for MS/MS analysis using data-dependent analysis results in only the topmost abundant ions being selected. To overcome these limitations, All Ions fragmentation (AIF) can be used alongside data-dependent analysis. In AIF, ions across the entire m/z range are simultaneously fragmented; hence, precursor-fragment relationships are lost, leading to a high false positive rate. We introduce IonDecon, which filters All Ions data to only those fragments correlating with precursor ions. This software can be used to deconvolute any All Ions files and generates an open source DDA formatted file, which can be used in any downstream nontargeted analysis workflow. In a neat solution, annotation of PFAS standards using IonDecon and All Ions had the exact same false positive rate as when using DDA; this suggests accurate annotation using All Ions and IonDecon. Furthermore, deconvoluted All Ions spectra retained the most abundant peaks also observed in DDA, while filtering out much of the artifact peaks. In complex samples, incorporating AIF and IonDecon into workflows can enhance the MS/MS coverage of PFAS (more than tripling the number of annotations in domestic sewage). Deconvolution in complex samples of All Ions data using IonDecon did retain some false fragments (fragments not observed when using ion selection, which were not isotopes or multimers), and therefore DDA and intelligent acquisition methods should still be acquired when possible alongside All Ions to decrease the false positive rate. Increased coverage of PFAS can inform on the development of regulations to address the entire PFAS problem, including both legacy and newly discovered PFAS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy P Koelmel
- Department of Environmental Health Science, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, United States
| | - Michael Kummer
- Innovative Omics, Inc., Sarasota, Florida 34235, United States
| | - Olivier Chevallier
- Agilent Technologies, Inc., Santa Clara, California 95051, United States
| | - Ralph Hindle
- Vogon Laboratory Services Ltd., Cochrane, Alberta T4C 0A3, Canada
| | - Kathy Hunt
- Vogon Laboratory Services Ltd., Cochrane, Alberta T4C 0A3, Canada
| | - Camden G Camacho
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Nandarani Abril
- Innovative Omics, Inc., Sarasota, Florida 34235, United States
| | - Emily L Gill
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | | | - Timothy J Garrett
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Richard A Yost
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Timothy G Townsend
- Department of Environmental Engineering Sciences, University of Florida, P. O. Box 116450, Gainesville, Florida 32611-6450, United States
| | - Christian Klein
- Agilent Technologies, Inc., Santa Clara, California 95051, United States
| | - Emma E Rennie
- Agilent Technologies, Inc., Santa Clara, California 95051, United States
| | - John A Bowden
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
- Center for Environmental and Human Toxicology & Department of Physiological Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Krystal J Godri Pollitt
- Department of Environmental Health Science, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, United States
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12
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Moneta BG, Feo ML, Torre M, Tratzi P, Aita SE, Montone CM, Taglioni E, Mosca S, Balducci C, Cerasa M, Guerriero E, Petracchini F, Cavaliere C, Laganà A, Paolini V. Occurrence of per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances in wastewater treatment plants in Northern Italy. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 894:165089. [PMID: 37355117 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Revised: 06/20/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/26/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater treatment plants are known to be relevant input sources of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in the aquatic environment. This study aimed to investigate the occurrence, fate, and seasonal variability of twenty-five PFAS in four municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTP A, B, C, and D) surrounding the city of Milan (Northern, Italy). Composite 24-h wastewater samples were collected in July and October 2021 and May and February 2022 from influents and effluents of the four WWTPs. PFAS were detected at concentrations ranging between 24.1 and 66.9 μg L-1 for influent and 13.4 and 107 μg L-1 for effluent wastewater samples. Perfluoropentanoic acid was the most abundant (1.91-30.0 μg L-1) in influent samples, whereas perfluorobutane sulfonic acid predominated (0.80-66.1 μg L-1) in effluent samples. In sludge, PFOA was detected in plant A at concentrations in the range of 96.6-165 ng kg-1 dw in primary sludge samples and 98.6-440 ng kg-1 dw in secondary treatment sludge samples. The removal efficiency of total PFAS varied between 6 % and 96 %. However, an increase of PFAS concentrations was observed from influents to effluents for plant D (during July and October), plant A (during October and May), and plant C (during May) indicating that biotransformation of PFAS precursors can occur during biological treatments. This was supported by the observed increase in concentrations of PFOA from primary to secondary treatment sludge samples in plant A. Moreover, the plant operating at shorter hydraulic retention times (plant D) showed lower removal efficiency (<45 %). Seasonal variation of PFAS in influent and effluent appears rather low and more likely due to pulse release instead of seasonal factors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Maria Luisa Feo
- Institute of Atmospheric Pollution Research, National Research Council of Italy (CNR IIA), Via Salaria km 29.300, 00015 Monterotondo, Rome, Italy.
| | - Marco Torre
- Institute of Atmospheric Pollution Research, National Research Council of Italy (CNR IIA), Via Salaria km 29.300, 00015 Monterotondo, Rome, Italy
| | - Patrizio Tratzi
- Institute of Atmospheric Pollution Research, National Research Council of Italy (CNR IIA), Via Salaria km 29.300, 00015 Monterotondo, Rome, Italy
| | - Sara Elsa Aita
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Carmela Maria Montone
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Enrico Taglioni
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Silvia Mosca
- Institute of Atmospheric Pollution Research, National Research Council of Italy (CNR IIA), Via Salaria km 29.300, 00015 Monterotondo, Rome, Italy
| | - Catia Balducci
- Institute of Atmospheric Pollution Research, National Research Council of Italy (CNR IIA), Via Salaria km 29.300, 00015 Monterotondo, Rome, Italy
| | - Marina Cerasa
- Institute of Atmospheric Pollution Research, National Research Council of Italy (CNR IIA), Via Salaria km 29.300, 00015 Monterotondo, Rome, Italy
| | - Ettore Guerriero
- Institute of Atmospheric Pollution Research, National Research Council of Italy (CNR IIA), Via Salaria km 29.300, 00015 Monterotondo, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesco Petracchini
- Institute of Atmospheric Pollution Research, National Research Council of Italy (CNR IIA), Via Salaria km 29.300, 00015 Monterotondo, Rome, Italy
| | - Chiara Cavaliere
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Aldo Laganà
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Valerio Paolini
- Institute of Atmospheric Pollution Research, National Research Council of Italy (CNR IIA), Via Salaria km 29.300, 00015 Monterotondo, Rome, Italy
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13
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Zarina R, Mezule L. Opportunities for resource recovery from Latvian municipal sewage sludge. Heliyon 2023; 9:e20435. [PMID: 37810806 PMCID: PMC10556758 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e20435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Revised: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Sewage sludge is a type of waste that has high health and environmental risks associated with its reuse. Moreover, sludge has been neglected in global circular economy targets because it is generated in considerably lower quantities than municipal solid waste. At the same time, European Union's transition towards circular economy has set the need to reduce the amount of waste and to promote the production of secondary raw materials. Many countries have developed national strategies for sludge management to reach their sustainability goals. In Latvia, the current sludge management approaches include land application, composting and anaerobic digestion which all utilize sludge as an organic fertilizer. As an alternative to current management practices, resource recovery is put forward as a solution that is in agreement with EU policy. Carbohydrates (including cellulose), proteins and lipids were selected as candidates for energy and materials recovery from sludge. For the first time, this study demonstrates a comprehensive assessment of Latvian municipal sewage sludge composition and offers the theoretical yields of secondary resources on a yearly basis. Primary, secondary, and anaerobically digested sludge from 13 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Latvia was characterized in this study. The most abundant sludge type - secondary sludge - contained 18.5% proteins, 9.8% lipids and 2.6% cellulose per TS. On a yearly basis, secondary sludge from all Latvian WWTPs could provide 2530 t proteins, corresponding to 750 t protein-based fertilizer. Primary sludge contained 23.9% proteins, 9.1% lipids and 7.1% cellulose per TS. Primary sludge could provide 763 t/a carbohydrates, including 545 t/a cellulose. The currently available secondary and digested sludge would yield 727 t bioethanol, corresponding to 4.0% of the national biofuel consumption. This work applies the concept of resource recovery to the Latvian wastewater sector and shows the potential of simultaneously addressing waste and wastewater management issues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruta Zarina
- Water Research and Environmental Biotechnology laboratory, Riga Technical University, Kipsalas 6A-263, Riga, Latvia
| | - Linda Mezule
- Water Research and Environmental Biotechnology laboratory, Riga Technical University, Kipsalas 6A-263, Riga, Latvia
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14
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Zweigle J, Capitain C, Simon F, Roesch P, Bugsel B, Zwiener C. Non-extractable PFAS in functional textiles - characterization by complementary methods: oxidation, hydrolysis, and fluorine sum parameters. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2023; 25:1298-1310. [PMID: 37503704 DOI: 10.1039/d3em00131h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are widely used for durable water-repellent finishing of different fabrics and textiles such as outdoor clothing, carpets, medical textiles and more. Existing PFAS extraction techniques followed by target analysis are often insufficient for detecting widely used side-chain fluorinated polymers (SFPs) that are barely or non-extractable. SFPs are typically copolymers consisting of a non-fluorinated backbone with perfluoroalkyl side-chains to obtain desired properties. We compared the accessible analytical information and performance of complementary techniques based on oxidation (dTOP and PhotoTOP assays), hydrolysis (THP assay), standard extraction, extractable organic fluorine (EOF), and total fluorine (TF) with five functional textiles and characterized 7 further textiles only by PhotoTOP oxidation. The results show that when applied directly to textile samples, dTOP and PhotoTOP oxidation and also hydrolysis (THP) are able to capture large fractions of TF in the form of perfluoroalkyl side-chains present in the textiles while methods relying on extracts (EOF, target and non-target analysis) yield much lower fractions of TF (e.g., factor ∼25-50 lower). The conversion of large fractions of the measured TF into PFCAs or FTOHs from fluorinated side chains is in contrast to previous studies. Concentrations ranged from
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Zweigle
- Environmental Analytical Chemistry, Department of Geosciences, University of Tübingen, Schnarrenbergstraße 94-96, 72076 Tübingen, Germany.
| | - Catharina Capitain
- Environmental Analytical Chemistry, Department of Geosciences, University of Tübingen, Schnarrenbergstraße 94-96, 72076 Tübingen, Germany.
| | - Fabian Simon
- Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM), Division 1.1 - Inorganic Trace Analysis, Richard-Willstätter-Straße 11, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Philipp Roesch
- Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM), Division 4.3 - Contaminant Transfer and Environmental Technologies, Unter den Eichen 87, 12205, Berlin, Germany
| | - Boris Bugsel
- Environmental Analytical Chemistry, Department of Geosciences, University of Tübingen, Schnarrenbergstraße 94-96, 72076 Tübingen, Germany.
| | - Christian Zwiener
- Environmental Analytical Chemistry, Department of Geosciences, University of Tübingen, Schnarrenbergstraße 94-96, 72076 Tübingen, Germany.
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15
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Vitale DS, Reeves DM, Coffin ES, Link GW, Cassidy DP, Rochow SM. Long-duration monitoring and mass balance of PFAS at a wastewater treatment plant following the release of aqueous film-forming foam concentrate. WATER RESEARCH 2023; 242:120268. [PMID: 37390657 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2023.120268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Revised: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 06/23/2023] [Indexed: 07/02/2023]
Abstract
Approximately 760 liters (200 gallons) of first-generation, PFOS-dominant, Aqueous Film-Forming Foam (AFFF) concentrate entered the sanitary sewer after an accidental release at the Kalamazoo/Battle Creek International Airport and migrated 11.4 km to the Kalamazoo Water Reclamation Plant. Near-daily sampling of influent, effluent, and biosolids generated a high-frequency, long-duration dataset used to understand the transport and fate of accidental PFAS releases to wastewater treatment plants, identify AFFF concentrate composition, and perform a plant-wide PFOS mass balance. Monitored influent concentrations exhibited sharp PFOS declines after 7 days post-spill, yet effluent discharges remained elevated due to return activated sludge (RAS) recirculation, resulting in the exceedance of Michigan's Surface Water Quality Value for 46 days. Mass balance estimates indicate 1.292 kg PFOS entering the plant and 1.368 kg leaving. Effluent discharge and sorption to biosolids account for 55% and 45% of estimated PFOS outputs, respectively. Identification of AFFF formulation and reasonable agreement between computed influent mass and reported spill volume demonstrates effective isolation of the AFFF spill signal and increases confidence in the mass balance estimates. These findings and related considerations provide critical insight for performing PFAS mass balances and developing operational procedures for accidental spills that minimize PFAS releases to the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donovan S Vitale
- Department of Geological and Environmental Sciences, Western Michigan University, 1903W. Michigan Ave, Kalamazoo, MI 49008-5241, USA
| | - Donald M Reeves
- Department of Geological and Environmental Sciences, Western Michigan University, 1903W. Michigan Ave, Kalamazoo, MI 49008-5241, USA.
| | - Ethan S Coffin
- Department of Geological and Environmental Sciences, Western Michigan University, 1903W. Michigan Ave, Kalamazoo, MI 49008-5241, USA
| | - Garrett W Link
- Department of Geological and Environmental Sciences, Western Michigan University, 1903W. Michigan Ave, Kalamazoo, MI 49008-5241, USA
| | - Daniel P Cassidy
- Department of Geological and Environmental Sciences, Western Michigan University, 1903W. Michigan Ave, Kalamazoo, MI 49008-5241, USA
| | - Steven M Rochow
- Department of Public Service, City of Kalamazoo, 1415 Harrison Street, Kalamazoo, MI 49007, USA
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16
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Björklund S, Weidemann E, Jansson S. Emission of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances from a Waste-to-Energy Plant─Occurrence in Ashes, Treated Process Water, and First Observation in Flue Gas. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023. [PMID: 37319344 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c08960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are a large group of compounds commonly used as industrial chemicals and constituents of consumer products, e.g., as surfactants and surface protectors. When products containing PFASs reach their end of life, some end up in waste streams sent to waste-to-energy (WtE) plants. However, the fate of PFASs in WtE processes is largely unknown, as is their potential to enter the environment via ash, gypsum, treated process water, and flue gas. This study forms part of a comprehensive investigation of the occurrence and distribution of PFASs in WtE residues. Sampling was performed during incineration of two different waste mixes: normal municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) and incineration of a waste mix with 5-8 wt % sewage sludge added to the MSWI (referred to as Sludge:MSWI). PFASs were identified in all examined residues, with short-chain (C4-C7) perfluorocarboxylic acids being the most abundant. Total levels of extractable PFASs were higher during Sludge:MSWI than during MSWI, with the total annual release estimated to be 47 and 13 g, respectively. Furthermore, PFASs were detected in flue gas for the first time (4.0-5.6 ng m-3). Our results demonstrate that some PFASs are not fully degraded by the high temperatures during WtE conversion and can be emitted from the plant via ash, gypsum, treated process water, and flue gas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofie Björklund
- Department of Chemistry, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden
- Industrial Doctoral School, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Eva Weidemann
- Department of Chemistry, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Stina Jansson
- Department of Chemistry, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden
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17
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Gobelius L, Glimstedt L, Olsson J, Wiberg K, Ahrens L. Mass flow of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in a Swedish municipal wastewater network and wastewater treatment plant. CHEMOSPHERE 2023:139182. [PMID: 37302497 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.139182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Revised: 06/08/2023] [Accepted: 06/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
PER: and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are ubiquitously distributed in wastewater, due to their numerous uses in industry and consumer products, but little is known of PFAS mass flows in municipal wastewater network systems and within wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). This study assessed mass flows of 26 PFAS in a wastewater network and WWTP, to provide new insights into their sources, transport, and fate in different treatment steps. Wastewater and sludge samples were collected from pumping stations and the main WWTP in Uppsala, Sweden. PFAS composition profiles and mass flows were used to identify sources within the sewage network. Wastewater from one pumping station showed elevated concentrations of C3-C8 PFCA, likely caused by an industrial source, and two stations had elevated concentrations of 6:2 FTSA, probably originating from a nearby firefighter training facility. Within the WWTP, short-chain PFAS dominated in wastewater, whereas long-chain PFAS dominated in sludge. The ratio of perfluoroalkyl sulfonates (PFSA) and ethylperfluorooctanesulfonamidoacetic acid (EtFOSAA) to ∑26PFAS decreased during the WWTP process, likely due to sorption to sludge, but also transformation (EtFOSAA). Overall, PFAS were not efficiently removed in the WWTP, with mean removal efficiency of 10 ± 68% for individual PFAS, resulting in discharge of 7000 mg d-1 ∑26PFAS into the recipient. This shows that conventional WWTPs are inefficient in removing PFAS from wastewater and sludge, so advanced treatment techniques are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Gobelius
- Department of Aquatic Sciences and Assessment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Box 7050, SE-750 07, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Linda Glimstedt
- Department of Aquatic Sciences and Assessment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Box 7050, SE-750 07, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Jesper Olsson
- Uppsala Vatten Och Avfall AB, Box 1444, 75144, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Karin Wiberg
- Department of Aquatic Sciences and Assessment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Box 7050, SE-750 07, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Lutz Ahrens
- Department of Aquatic Sciences and Assessment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Box 7050, SE-750 07, Uppsala, Sweden.
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18
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Li W, Li L, Li B, Peng L, Xu Y, Li R, Song K. Effect and mechanism of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) on anaerobic digestion sludge dewaterability. CHEMOSPHERE 2023:139142. [PMID: 37290510 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.139142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2023] [Revised: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 06/04/2023] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) as nonbiodegradable organic pollutant, its presence and risks in wastewater treatment system has aroused wide concern. This study investigated the effect and underlying mechanism of PFOA on anaerobic digestion sludge (ADS) dewaterability. Long-term exposure experiments were set up to investigate the effect with various concentration of PFOA dosed. Experimental results suggested that the existence of high concentration PFOA (over 1000 μg/L) could deteriorate ADS dewaterability. The long-term exposure to 100,000 μg/L PFOA of ADS increased specific resistance filtration (SRF) by 81.57%. It was found that PFOA promoted the release of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), which was strongly associated with sludge dewaterability. The fluorescence analysis revealed that the high PFOA concentration could significantly improve the percentage of protein-like substances and soluble microbial by-product-like content, and then further deteriorated the dewaterability. The FTIR results showed that long-term exposure of PFOA caused loose protein structure in sludge EPS, which led to loose sludge floc structure. The loose sludge floc structure aggravated the deterioration of sludge dewaterability. The solids-water distribution coefficient (Kd) decreased with the increase of initial PFOA concentration. Moreover, PFOA significantly affected microbial community structure. Metabolic function prediction results showed significant decrease of fermentation function exposed to PFOA. This study revealed that the PFOA with high concentration could deteriorated sludge dewaterability, which should be highly concerned.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenkai Li
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Luoshi Road 122, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, China; State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei, 430072, China; National-Regional Joint Engineering Research Center for Soil Pollution Control and Remediation in South China, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Integrated Agro-environmental Pollution Control and Management, Institute of Eco-environmental and Soil Sciences, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China
| | - Lu Li
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei, 430072, China
| | - Biqing Li
- Guangzhou Sewage Purification Co. Ltd., Guangzhou, 510655, China
| | - Lai Peng
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Luoshi Road 122, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, China
| | - Yifeng Xu
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Luoshi Road 122, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, China
| | - Renhui Li
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Wenzhou University, Zhejiang, 325035, China
| | - Kang Song
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei, 430072, China.
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19
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Lv L, Liu B, Zhang B, Yu Y, Gao L, Ding L. A systematic review on distribution, sources and sorption of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) in soil and their plant uptake. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 231:116156. [PMID: 37196690 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.116156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Revised: 04/29/2023] [Accepted: 05/13/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) are ubiquitous in environment, which have attracted increasing concerns in recent years. This study collected the data on PFAAs concentrations in 1042 soil samples from 15 countries and comprehensively reviewed the spatial distribution, sources, sorption mechanisms of PFAAs in soil and their plant uptake. PFAAs are widely detected in soils from many countries worldwide and their distribution is related to the emission of the fluorine-containing organic industry. Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) are found to be the predominant PFAAs in soil. Industrial emission is the main source of PFAAs contributing 49.9% of the total concentrations of PFAAs (Ʃ PFAAs) in soil, followed by activated sludge treated by wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) (19.9%) and irrigation of effluents from WWTPs, usage of aqueous film-forming foam (AFFFs) and leaching of leachate from landfill (30.2%). The adsorption of PFAAs by soil is mainly influenced by soil pH, ionic strength, soil organic matter and minerals. The concentrations of perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs) in soil are negatively correlated with the length of carbon chain, log Kow, and log Koc. The carbon chain lengths of PFAAs are negatively correlated with the root-soil concentration factors (RCFs) and shoot-soil concentration factors (SCFs). The uptake of PFAAs by plant is influenced by physicochemical properties of PFAAs, plant physiology and soil environment. Further studies should be conducted to make up the inadequacy of existing knowledge on the behavior and fate of PFAAs in soil-plant system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linyang Lv
- College of Chemistry, Changchun Normal University, Changchun, 130032, China
| | - Baolin Liu
- College of Chemistry, Changchun Normal University, Changchun, 130032, China.
| | - Bimi Zhang
- Food and Drug Engineering Institute, Jilin Province Economic Management Cadre College, Changchun, 130012, China
| | - Yong Yu
- Key Laboratory of Wetland Ecology and Environment, Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, 130102, China
| | - Lei Gao
- College of Chemistry, Changchun Normal University, Changchun, 130032, China
| | - Lingjie Ding
- College of Chemistry, Changchun Normal University, Changchun, 130032, China
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20
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Lewis AJ, Ebrahimi F, McKenzie ER, Suri R, Sales CM. Influence of microbial weathering on the partitioning of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in biosolids. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2023; 25:415-431. [PMID: 36637091 DOI: 10.1039/d2em00350c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a large group of man-made fluorinated organic chemicals that can accumulate in the environment. In water resource recovery facilities (WRRFs), some commonly detected PFAS tend to partition to and concentrate in biosolids where they can act as a source to ecological receptors and may leach to groundwater when land-applied. Although biosolids undergo some stabilization to reduce pathogens before land application, they still contain many microorganisms, contributing to the eventual decomposition of different components of the biosolids. This work demonstrates ways in which microbial weathering can influence biosolids decomposition, degrade PFAS, and impact PFAS partitioning in small-scale, controlled laboratory experiments. In the microbial weathering experiments, compound-specific PFAS biosolids-water partitioning coefficients (Kd) were demonstrated to decrease, on average, 0.4 logs over the course of the 91 day study, with the most rapid changes occurring during the first 10 days. Additionally, the highest rates of lipid, protein, and organic matter removal occurred during the same time. Among the evaluated independent variables, statistical analyses demonstrated that the most significant solids characteristics that impacted PFAS partitioning were organic matter, proteins, lipids, and molecular weight of organics. A multiple linear regression model was built to predict PFAS partitioning behavior in biosolids based on solid characteristics of the biosolids and PFAS characteristics with a R2 value of 0.7391 when plotting predicted and measured log Kd. The findings from this work reveal that microbial weathering can play a significant role in the eventual fate and transport of PFAS and their precursors from biosolids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asa J Lewis
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, Drexel University, 3100 Market St., Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA.
| | - Farshad Ebrahimi
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Temple University, 1947 N 12th St., Philadelphia, PA, 19122, USA
| | - Erica R McKenzie
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Temple University, 1947 N 12th St., Philadelphia, PA, 19122, USA
| | - Rominder Suri
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Temple University, 1947 N 12th St., Philadelphia, PA, 19122, USA
| | - Christopher M Sales
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, Drexel University, 3100 Market St., Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA.
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Lin M, Liao Q, Tang P, Song Y, Liang J, Li J, Mu C, Liu S, Qiu X, Yi R, Pang Q, Pan D, Zeng X, Huang D. Association of maternal perfluoroalkyl substance exposure with postpartum haemorrhage in Guangxi, China. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2022; 245:114078. [PMID: 36137419 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.114078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Revised: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 09/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) is the leading cause of maternal death worldwide, and it may be caused by environmental endocrine disruptors. Prenatal exposure to perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in women has been linked to pregnancy disorders and adverse birth outcomes, but no data are available on the relationship between PFAS exposure during pregnancy and postpartum haemorrhage. This study aimed to explore the associations of maternal PFAS exposure with the postpartum haemorrhage risk and total blood loss. A total of 1496 mother-infant pairs in the Guangxi Zhuang birth cohort were included between June 2015 and May 2018. The concentration of PFASs in serum was detected using ultrahigh liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Multiple binomial regression and linear regression models were used to analyse individual PFAS exposures. The mixture of PFASs was analysed using Bayesian Kernel Machine Regression (BKMR). In single substance exposure models, exposure to perfluorohexanesulfonic acid (PFHxS) increased the risk of postpartum haemorrhage (OR: 3.42, 95 % CI: 1.45, 8.07), while exposure to perfluorododecanoic acid (PFDoA) was inversely associated with the risk of postpartum haemorrhage (OR: 0.42, 95 % CI: 0.22, 0.80). The concentrations of perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUnA) (β: 0.06, 95 % CI: 12.32, 108.82) and perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) (β: 0.05, 95 % CI: 0.40, 88.95) exposure were positively correlated with the amount of postpartum haemorrhage; this result occurred only in the absence of covariate adjustment. In BKMR models, the risk of postpartum haemorrhage increased with increasing exposure to a PFAS mixture. In conclusion, our study suggested that maternal serum PFAS exposure during pregnancy was associated with the risk of postpartum haemorrhage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengrui Lin
- Department of Sanitary Inspection, School of Public Health, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, Guangxi, China
| | - Qian Liao
- Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, School of Public Health, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, Guangxi, China
| | - Peng Tang
- Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, School of Public Health, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, Guangxi, China
| | - Yanye Song
- Nanning Second People's Hospital, Nanning 530031, Guangxi, China
| | - Jun Liang
- Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, School of Public Health, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, Guangxi, China
| | - Jinxiu Li
- Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, School of Public Health, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, Guangxi, China
| | - Changhui Mu
- Department of Sanitary Inspection, School of Public Health, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, Guangxi, China
| | - Shun Liu
- Department of Maternal, Child and Adolescent Health, School of Public Health, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, Guangxi, China
| | - Xiaoqiang Qiu
- Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, School of Public Health, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, Guangxi, China
| | - Rui Yi
- Paediatrics, Tiandong Maternal and Child Health Hospital, Tiandong 531500, Guangxi, China
| | - Qiang Pang
- Department of Cardiology, Debao Maternal and Child Health Hospital, Debao 533700, Guangxi, China
| | - Dongxiang Pan
- Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, School of Public Health, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, Guangxi, China.
| | - Xiaoyun Zeng
- Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, School of Public Health, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, Guangxi, China.
| | - Dongping Huang
- Department of Sanitary Inspection, School of Public Health, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, Guangxi, China.
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