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Purves K, Reynolds LJ, Sala-Comorera L, Martin NA, Dahly DL, Meijer WG, Fletcher NF. Decay of RNA and infectious SARS-CoV-2 and murine hepatitis virus in wastewater. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 944:173877. [PMID: 38871327 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.173877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Revised: 06/06/2024] [Accepted: 06/07/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has been an important tool for population surveillance during the COVID-19 pandemic and continues to play a key role in monitoring SARS-CoV-2 infection levels following reductions in national clinical testing schemes. Studies measuring decay profiles of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater have underscored the value of WBE, however investigations have been hampered by high biosafety requirements for SARS-CoV-2 infection studies. Therefore, surrogate viruses with lower biosafety standards have been used for SARS-CoV-2 decay studies, such as murine hepatitis virus (MHV), but few studies have directly compared decay rates of both viruses. We compared the persistence of SARS-CoV-2 and MHV in wastewater, using 50 % tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50) and reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) assays to assess infectious virus titre and viral gene markers, respectively. Infectious SARS-CoV-2 and MHV indicate similar endpoints, however observed early decay characteristics differed, with infectious SARS-CoV-2 decaying more rapidly than MHV. We find that MHV is an appropriate infectious virus surrogate for viable SARS-CoV-2, however inconsistencies exist in viral RNA decay parameters, indicating MHV may not be a suitable nucleic acid surrogate across certain temperature regimes. This study highlights the importance of sample preparation and the potential for decay rate overestimation in wastewater surveillance for SARS-CoV-2 and other pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Purves
- UCD School of Veterinary Medicine and UCD Conway Institute, University College Dublin, Ireland
| | - Liam J Reynolds
- UCD School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Science, UCD Earth Institute and UCD Conway Institute, University College Dublin, Ireland
| | - Laura Sala-Comorera
- Section of Microbiology, Virology and Biotechnology, Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, University of Barcelona, Spain
| | - Niamh A Martin
- UCD School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Science, UCD Earth Institute and UCD Conway Institute, University College Dublin, Ireland
| | - Darren L Dahly
- Health Research Board Clinical Research Facility, University College Cork, Ireland; School of Public Health, University College Cork, Ireland
| | - Wim G Meijer
- UCD School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Science, UCD Earth Institute and UCD Conway Institute, University College Dublin, Ireland
| | - Nicola F Fletcher
- UCD School of Veterinary Medicine and UCD Conway Institute, University College Dublin, Ireland.
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Carine MR, Pagilla KR. A mass balance approach for quantifying the role of natural decay and fate mechanisms on SARS-CoV-2 genetic marker removal during water reclamation. WATER ENVIRONMENT RESEARCH : A RESEARCH PUBLICATION OF THE WATER ENVIRONMENT FEDERATION 2024; 96:e11015. [PMID: 38599573 DOI: 10.1002/wer.11015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2023] [Revised: 02/06/2024] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/12/2024]
Abstract
The recent SARS-CoV-2 outbreak yielded substantial data regarding virus fate and prevalence at water reclamation facilities (WRFs), identifying influential factors as natural decay, adsorption, light, pH, salinity, and antagonistic microorganisms. However, no studies have quantified the impact of these factors in full scale WRFs. Utilizing a mass balance approach, we assessed the impact of natural decay and other fate mechanisms on genetic marker removal during water reclamation, through the use of sludge and wastewater genetic marker loading estimates. Results indicated negligible removal of genetic markers during P/PT (primary effluent (PE) p value: 0.267; preliminary and primary treatment (P/PT) accumulation p value: 0.904; and thickened primary sludge (TPS) p value: 0.076) indicating no contribution of natural decay and other fate mechanisms toward removal in P/PT. Comparably, adsorption and decomposition was found to be the dominant pathway for genetic marker removal (thickened waste activated sludge (TWAS) log loading 9.75 log10 GC/day); however, no estimation of log genetic marker accumulation could be carried out due to high detections in TWAS. PRACTITIONER POINTS: The mass balance approach suggested that the contribution of natural decay and other fate mechanisms to virus removal during wastewater treatment are negligible compared with adsorption and decomposition in P/PT (p value: 0.904). During (P/PT), a higher viral load remained in the (PE) (14.16 log10 GC/day) compared with TPS (13.83 log10 GC/day); however, no statistical difference was observed (p value: 0.280) indicting that adsorption/decomposition most probably did not occur. In secondary treatment (ST), viral genetic markers in TWAS were consistently detected (13.41 log10 GC/day) compared with secondary effluent (SE), indicating that longer HRT and the potential presence of extracellular polymeric substance-containing enriched biomass enabled adsorption/decomposition. Estimations of total solids and volatile solids for TPS and TWAS indicated that adsorption affinity was different between solids sampling locations (p value: <0.0001).
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Affiliation(s)
- Madeline R Carine
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, USA
| | - Krishna R Pagilla
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, USA
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Parkins MD, Lee BE, Acosta N, Bautista M, Hubert CRJ, Hrudey SE, Frankowski K, Pang XL. Wastewater-based surveillance as a tool for public health action: SARS-CoV-2 and beyond. Clin Microbiol Rev 2024; 37:e0010322. [PMID: 38095438 PMCID: PMC10938902 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00103-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Wastewater-based surveillance (WBS) has undergone dramatic advancement in the context of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. The power and potential of this platform technology were rapidly realized when it became evident that not only did WBS-measured SARS-CoV-2 RNA correlate strongly with COVID-19 clinical disease within monitored populations but also, in fact, it functioned as a leading indicator. Teams from across the globe rapidly innovated novel approaches by which wastewater could be collected from diverse sewersheds ranging from wastewater treatment plants (enabling community-level surveillance) to more granular locations including individual neighborhoods and high-risk buildings such as long-term care facilities (LTCF). Efficient processes enabled SARS-CoV-2 RNA extraction and concentration from the highly dilute wastewater matrix. Molecular and genomic tools to identify, quantify, and characterize SARS-CoV-2 and its various variants were adapted from clinical programs and applied to these mixed environmental systems. Novel data-sharing tools allowed this information to be mobilized and made immediately available to public health and government decision-makers and even the public, enabling evidence-informed decision-making based on local disease dynamics. WBS has since been recognized as a tool of transformative potential, providing near-real-time cost-effective, objective, comprehensive, and inclusive data on the changing prevalence of measured analytes across space and time in populations. However, as a consequence of rapid innovation from hundreds of teams simultaneously, tremendous heterogeneity currently exists in the SARS-CoV-2 WBS literature. This manuscript provides a state-of-the-art review of WBS as established with SARS-CoV-2 and details the current work underway expanding its scope to other infectious disease targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael D. Parkins
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Department of Medicine, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- O’Brien Institute of Public Health, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Bonita E. Lee
- Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Nicole Acosta
- Department of Medicine, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Maria Bautista
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Casey R. J. Hubert
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Steve E. Hrudey
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Kevin Frankowski
- Advancing Canadian Water Assets, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Xiao-Li Pang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
- Provincial Health Laboratory, Alberta Health Services, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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Dostálková A, Zdeňková K, Bartáčková J, Čermáková E, Kapisheva M, Lopez Marin MA, Kouba V, Sýkora P, Chmel M, Bartoš O, Dresler J, Demnerová K, Rumlová M, Bartáček J. Prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 variants in Prague wastewater determined by nanopore-based sequencing. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 351:141162. [PMID: 38218235 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.141162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 01/07/2024] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 01/15/2024]
Abstract
The early detection of upcoming disease outbreaks is essential to avoid both health and economic damage. The last four years of COVID-19 pandemic have proven wastewater-based epidemiology is a reliable system for monitoring the spread of SARS-CoV-2, a causative agent of COVID-19, in an urban population. As this monitoring enables the identification of the prevalence of spreading variants of SARS-CoV-2, it could provide a critical tool in the fight against this viral disease. In this study, we evaluated the presence of variants and subvariants of SARS-CoV-2 in Prague wastewater using nanopore-based sequencing. During August 2021, the data clearly showed that the number of identified SARS-CoV-2 RNA copies increased in the wastewater earlier than in clinical samples indicating the upcoming wave of the Delta variant. New SARS-CoV-2 variants consistently prevailed in wastewater samples around a month after they already prevailed in clinical samples. We also analyzed wastewater samples from smaller sub-sewersheds of Prague and detected significant differences in SARS-CoV-2 lineage progression dynamics among individual localities studied, e.g., suggesting faster prevalence of new variants among the sites with highest population density and mobility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alžběta Dostálková
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Czech Republic; National Institute of Virology and Bacteriology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Kamila Zdeňková
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Czech Republic.
| | - Jana Bartáčková
- Department of Water Technology and Environmental Engineering, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Eliška Čermáková
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Marina Kapisheva
- National Institute of Virology and Bacteriology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Marco A Lopez Marin
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Vojtěch Kouba
- Department of Water Technology and Environmental Engineering, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Sýkora
- PVK a.s., Prague Water Supply and Sewerage Company, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Chmel
- Department of Infectious Diseases, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and Military University Hospital Prague, Prague, Czech Republic; Military Health Institute, Military Medical Agency, Czech Republic
| | - Oldřich Bartoš
- Military Health Institute, Military Medical Agency, Czech Republic
| | - Jiří Dresler
- Military Health Institute, Military Medical Agency, Czech Republic
| | - Kateřina Demnerová
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Michaela Rumlová
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Czech Republic; National Institute of Virology and Bacteriology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Bartáček
- Department of Water Technology and Environmental Engineering, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Czech Republic
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Kononova Y, Adamenko L, Kazachkova E, Solomatina M, Romanenko S, Proskuryakova A, Utkin Y, Gulyaeva M, Spirina A, Kazachinskaia E, Palyanova N, Mishchenko O, Chepurnov A, Shestopalov A. Features of SARS-CoV-2 Replication in Various Types of Reptilian and Fish Cell Cultures. Viruses 2023; 15:2350. [PMID: 38140591 PMCID: PMC10748073 DOI: 10.3390/v15122350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Revised: 11/24/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND SARS-CoV-2 can enter the environment from the feces of COVID-19 patients and virus carriers through untreated sewage. The virus has shown the ability to adapt to a wide range of hosts, so the question of the possible involvement of aquafauna and animals of coastal ecosystems in maintaining its circulation remains open. METHODS the aim of this work was to study the tropism of SARS-CoV-2 for cells of freshwater fish and reptiles, including those associated with aquatic and coastal ecosystems, and the effect of ambient temperature on this process. In a continuous cell culture FHM (fathead minnow) and diploid fibroblasts CGIB (silver carp), SARS-CoV-2 replication was not maintained at either 25 °C or 29 °C. At 29 °C, the continuous cell culture TH-1 (eastern box turtle) showed high susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2, comparable to Vero E6 (development of virus-induced cytopathic effect (CPE) and an infectious titer of 7.5 ± 0.17 log10 TCID50/mL on day 3 after infection), and primary fibroblasts CNI (Nile crocodile embryo) showed moderate susceptibility (no CPE, infectious titer 4.52 ± 0.14 log10 TCID50/mL on day 5 after infection). At 25 °C, SARS-CoV-2 infection did not develop in TH-1 and CNI. CONCLUSIONS our results show the ability of SARS-CoV-2 to effectively replicate without adaptation in the cells of certain reptile species when the ambient temperature rises.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yulia Kononova
- Federal Research Center of Fundamental and Translational Medicine, The Federal State Budget Scientific Institution, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2, Timakova St., Novosibirsk 630117, Russia; (Y.K.); (L.A.); (E.K.); (M.S.); (A.S.); (E.K.); (N.P.); (A.C.); (A.S.)
| | - Lyubov Adamenko
- Federal Research Center of Fundamental and Translational Medicine, The Federal State Budget Scientific Institution, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2, Timakova St., Novosibirsk 630117, Russia; (Y.K.); (L.A.); (E.K.); (M.S.); (A.S.); (E.K.); (N.P.); (A.C.); (A.S.)
| | - Evgeniya Kazachkova
- Federal Research Center of Fundamental and Translational Medicine, The Federal State Budget Scientific Institution, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2, Timakova St., Novosibirsk 630117, Russia; (Y.K.); (L.A.); (E.K.); (M.S.); (A.S.); (E.K.); (N.P.); (A.C.); (A.S.)
| | - Mariya Solomatina
- Federal Research Center of Fundamental and Translational Medicine, The Federal State Budget Scientific Institution, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2, Timakova St., Novosibirsk 630117, Russia; (Y.K.); (L.A.); (E.K.); (M.S.); (A.S.); (E.K.); (N.P.); (A.C.); (A.S.)
| | - Svetlana Romanenko
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Siberian Branch, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia; (S.R.); (A.P.); (Y.U.)
| | - Anastasia Proskuryakova
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Siberian Branch, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia; (S.R.); (A.P.); (Y.U.)
| | - Yaroslav Utkin
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Siberian Branch, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia; (S.R.); (A.P.); (Y.U.)
| | - Marina Gulyaeva
- Federal Research Center of Fundamental and Translational Medicine, The Federal State Budget Scientific Institution, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2, Timakova St., Novosibirsk 630117, Russia; (Y.K.); (L.A.); (E.K.); (M.S.); (A.S.); (E.K.); (N.P.); (A.C.); (A.S.)
- The Department of Natural Science, Novosibirsk State University, 2, Pirogova St., Novosibirsk 630090, Russia
| | - Anastasia Spirina
- Federal Research Center of Fundamental and Translational Medicine, The Federal State Budget Scientific Institution, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2, Timakova St., Novosibirsk 630117, Russia; (Y.K.); (L.A.); (E.K.); (M.S.); (A.S.); (E.K.); (N.P.); (A.C.); (A.S.)
| | - Elena Kazachinskaia
- Federal Research Center of Fundamental and Translational Medicine, The Federal State Budget Scientific Institution, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2, Timakova St., Novosibirsk 630117, Russia; (Y.K.); (L.A.); (E.K.); (M.S.); (A.S.); (E.K.); (N.P.); (A.C.); (A.S.)
| | - Natalia Palyanova
- Federal Research Center of Fundamental and Translational Medicine, The Federal State Budget Scientific Institution, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2, Timakova St., Novosibirsk 630117, Russia; (Y.K.); (L.A.); (E.K.); (M.S.); (A.S.); (E.K.); (N.P.); (A.C.); (A.S.)
| | - Oksana Mishchenko
- 48 Central Research Institute of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, Moscow 141306, Russia;
| | - Alexander Chepurnov
- Federal Research Center of Fundamental and Translational Medicine, The Federal State Budget Scientific Institution, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2, Timakova St., Novosibirsk 630117, Russia; (Y.K.); (L.A.); (E.K.); (M.S.); (A.S.); (E.K.); (N.P.); (A.C.); (A.S.)
| | - Alexander Shestopalov
- Federal Research Center of Fundamental and Translational Medicine, The Federal State Budget Scientific Institution, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2, Timakova St., Novosibirsk 630117, Russia; (Y.K.); (L.A.); (E.K.); (M.S.); (A.S.); (E.K.); (N.P.); (A.C.); (A.S.)
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Sherchan SP, Thakali O, Ikner LA, Gerba C, Haramoto E. Survivability of Delta and Omicron variants of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater. WATER RESEARCH 2023; 246:120644. [PMID: 37844338 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2023.120644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Revised: 07/07/2023] [Accepted: 09/17/2023] [Indexed: 10/18/2023]
Abstract
Concerns of fecal-aerosol transmission of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-2019) coupled with increased transmissibility and disease severity of Delta and Omicron variants of concern (VOC) of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), suggest studies on survival of VOC in wastewater are warranted. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate the survivability of Delta and Omicron VOC in filtered and unfiltered raw wastewater, and secondary effluent at room temperature (23 °C). The time required for 90 % inactivation (T90) of Delta and Omicron VOC in unfiltered raw wastewater was calculated as 17.7 and 15.3 h, respectively. Rapid inactivation of VOC in wastewater and inability to isolate SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater suggest risks from fecal-aerosol transmission are low. Nevertheless, high transmissibility of VOC cautions overruling fecal-aerosol transmission of COVID-19. Future studies on survival of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater should attempt viral culture by spiking feces collected from COVID-19 infected patients into wastewater to match the real-world scenario.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samendra P Sherchan
- Organization for Public Health and Environment Management, Lalitpur, Bagmati, Nepal; Department of Environmental Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States; WEST Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States; Interdisciplinary Center for River Basin Environment, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-8511, Japan; Department of Environmental Health, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112, United States; Center of Research Excellence in Wastewater-based Epidemiology, Morgan State University, Baltimore, MD 21251, United States.
| | - Ocean Thakali
- Organization for Public Health and Environment Management, Lalitpur, Bagmati, Nepal
| | - Luisa A Ikner
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States; WEST Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Charles Gerba
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States; WEST Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Eiji Haramoto
- Interdisciplinary Center for River Basin Environment, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-8511, Japan
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Hayes EK, Gouthro MT, Fuller M, Redden DJ, Gagnon GA. Enhanced detection of viruses for improved water safety. Sci Rep 2023; 13:17336. [PMID: 37833399 PMCID: PMC10575868 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-44528-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Human viruses pose a significant health risk in freshwater environments, but current monitoring methods are inadequate for detecting viral presence efficiently. We evaluated a novel passive in-situ concentration method using granular activated carbon (GAC). This study detected and quantified eight enteric and non-enteric, pathogenic viruses in a freshwater recreational lake in paired grab and GAC passive samples. The results found that GAC passive sampling had a higher detection rate for all viruses compared to grab samples, with adenovirus found to be the most prevalent virus, followed by respiratory syncytial virus, norovirus, enterovirus, influenza A, SARS-CoV-2, and rotavirus. GAC in-situ concentration allowed for the capture and recovery of viral gene copy targets that ranged from one to three orders of magnitude higher than conventional ex-situ concentration methods used in viral monitoring. This simple and affordable sampling method may have far-reaching implications for reducing barriers associated with viral monitoring across various environmental contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emalie K Hayes
- Centre for Water Resources Studies, Department of Civil and Resource Engineering, Dalhousie University, 1360 Barrington Street, Halifax, NS, B3H 4R2, Canada.
| | - Madison T Gouthro
- Centre for Water Resources Studies, Department of Civil and Resource Engineering, Dalhousie University, 1360 Barrington Street, Halifax, NS, B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - Megan Fuller
- Centre for Water Resources Studies, Department of Civil and Resource Engineering, Dalhousie University, 1360 Barrington Street, Halifax, NS, B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - David J Redden
- Centre for Water Resources Studies, Department of Civil and Resource Engineering, Dalhousie University, 1360 Barrington Street, Halifax, NS, B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - Graham A Gagnon
- Centre for Water Resources Studies, Department of Civil and Resource Engineering, Dalhousie University, 1360 Barrington Street, Halifax, NS, B3H 4R2, Canada.
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