New approaches in extracellular vesicle engineering for improving the efficacy of anti-cancer therapies

MMP2 enzyme-responsive extracellular vesicles as dual-targeted carriers to promote the phagocytosis of macrophages

Combination therapy using inhibition of tumor cell escape and alteration of the tumor microenvironment offers a new strategy for cancer treatment. This study aimed to develop an extracellular vesicle (EV) carrier that regulates tumor cells and the tumor microenvironment to achieve efficient tumor immunotherapy. The ligand modified on carriers targets the immune checkpoint CD47 protein, blocking tumor cell escape. This ligand is cleaved by the MMP2 enzyme and assembles into nanofibers, extending the retention time in the tumor. The carriers target the CD206 protein, enabling efficient uptake by M2 macrophages. Carriers with a high density of ligands (anti-CD206) exhibit strong receptorligand interactions with tumor cells. Due to their high rigidity, these EVs have difficulty deforming during the transmembrane process, reducing resistance and resulting in low uptake efficiency by M2 cells. The optimal uptake efficiency by M2 macrophages is achieved when the mass ratio of ligand to EVs is 1:25. Crocin loaded in EVs facilitates the polarization of M2 macrophages into M1 cells, which can phagocytize tumor cells. This study reveals a potential strategy for using extracellular vesicles in tumor treatment.

Revolutionizing cancer therapy: nanoformulation of miRNA-34 - enhancing delivery and efficacy for various cancer immunotherapies: a review

Despite recent advancements in cancer therapies, challenges such as severe toxic effects, non-selective targeting, resistance to chemotherapy and radiotherapy, and recurrence of metastatic tumors persist. Consequently, there has been considerable effort to explore innovative anticancer compounds, particularly in immunotherapy, which offer the potential for enhanced biosafety and efficacy in cancer prevention and treatment. One such avenue of exploration involves the miRNA-34 (miR-34) family, known for its ability to inhibit tumorigenesis across various cancers. Dysregulation of miR-34 has been observed in several human cancers, and it is recognized as a tumor suppressor microRNA due to its synergistic interaction with the well-established tumor suppressor p53. However, challenges have arisen with the therapeutic application of miR-34a. These include its susceptibility to degradation by RNase in serum, limiting its ability to penetrate capillary endothelium and reach target cells, as well as reports of immunoreactive adverse reactions. Furthermore, unexpected side effects may occur, such as the accumulation of therapeutic miRNAs in healthy tissues due to interactions with serum proteins on nano-vector surfaces, nanoparticle breakdown in the bloodstream due to shearing stress, and unsuccessful extravasation of nanocarriers to target cells owing to interstitial fluid pressure. Despite these challenges, miR-34a remains a promising candidate for cancer therapy, and other members of the miR-34 family have also shown potential in inhibiting tumor cell proliferation. While the in vivo applications of miR-34b/c are limited, they warrant further exploration for oncotherapy. Recently, procedures utilizing nanoparticles have been developed to address the challenges associated with the clinical use of miR-34, demonstrating efficacy both in vitro and in vivo. This review highlights emerging trends in nanodelivery systems for miR-34 targeting cancer cells, offering insights into novel nanoformulations designed to enhance the anticancer therapeutic activity and targeting precision of miR-34. As far as current knowledge extends, no similar recent review comprehensively addresses the diverse nanoformulations aimed at optimizing the therapeutic potential of miR-34 in anticancer strategies.

Engineering therapeutical extracellular vesicles for clinical translation

Cell-based therapies are revolutionizing medicine by replacing or modifying dysfunctional cells with healthy cells or engineered derivatives, offering disease reversal and cure. One promising approach is using cell-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs), which offer therapeutic benefits similar to cell transplants without the biosafety risks. Although EV applications face challenges like limited production, inadequate therapeutic loading, and poor targeting efficiency, recent advances in bioengineering have enhanced their effectiveness. Herein, we summarize technological breakthroughs in EV bioengineering over the past 5 years, highlighting their improved therapeutic functionalities and potential clinical prospects. We also discuss biomanufacturing processes, regulation, and safety considerations for bioengineered EV therapies, emphasizing the significance of establishing robust frameworks to ensure translation capability, safety, and therapeutic effectiveness for successful clinical adoption.

Advancing cancer therapeutics: Integrating scalable 3D cancer models, extracellular vesicles, and omics for enhanced therapy efficacy

Cancer remains as one of the highest challenges to human health. However, anticancer drugs exhibit one of the highest attrition rates compared to other therapeutic interventions. In part, this can be attributed to a prevalent use of in vitro models with limited recapitulative potential of the in vivo settings. Three dimensional (3D) models, such as tumor spheroids and organoids, offer many research opportunities to address the urgent need in developing models capable to more accurately mimic cancer biology and drug resistance profiles. However, their wide adoption in high-throughput pre-clinical studies is dependent on scalable manufacturing to support large-scale therapeutic drug screenings and multi-omic approaches for their comprehensive cellular and molecular characterization. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), which have been emerging as promising drug delivery systems (DDS), stand to significantly benefit from such screenings conducted in realistic cancer models. Furthermore, the integration of these nanomedicines with 3D cancer models and omics profiling holds the potential to deepen our understanding of EV-mediated anticancer effects. In this chapter, we provide an overview of the existing 3D models used in cancer research, namely spheroids and organoids, the innovations in their scalable production and discuss how omics can facilitate the implementation of these models at different stages of drug testing. We also explore how EVs can advance drug delivery in cancer therapies and how the synergy between 3D cancer models and omics approaches can benefit in this process.

New insights into red blood cells in tumor precision diagnosis and treatment

Red blood cells (RBCs), which function as material transporters in organisms, are rich in materials that are exchanged with metabolically active tumor cells. Recent studies have demonstrated that tumor cells can regulate biological changes in RBCs, including influencing differentiation, maturation, and morphology. RBCs play an important role in tumor development and immune regulation. Notably, the novel scientific finding that RBCs absorb fragments of tumor-carrying DNA overturns the conventional wisdom that RBCs do not contain nucleic acids. RBC membranes are excellent biomimetic materials with significant advantages in terms of their biocompatibility, non-immunogenicity, non-specific adsorption resistance, and biodegradability. Therefore, RBCs provide a new research perspective for the development of tumor liquid biopsies, molecular imaging, drug delivery, and other tumor precision diagnosis and treatment technologies.

Role of Exosomes in Cancer and Aptamer-Modified Exosomes as a Promising Platform for Cancer Targeted Therapy

Exosomes are increasingly recognized as important mediators of intercellular communication in cancer biology. Exosomes can be derived from cancer cells as well as cellular components in tumor microenvironment. After secretion, the exosomes carrying a wide range of bioactive cargos can be ingested by local or distant recipient cells. The released cargos act through a variety of mechanisms to elicit multiple biological effects and impact most if not all hallmarks of cancer. Moreover, owing to their excellent biocompatibility and capability of being easily engineered or modified, exosomes are currently exploited as a promising platform for cancer targeted therapy. In this review, we first summarize the current knowledge of roles of exosomes in risk and etiology, initiation and progression of cancer, as well as their underlying molecular mechanisms. The aptamer-modified exosome as a promising platform for cancer targeted therapy is then briefly introduced. We also discuss the future directions for emerging roles of exosome in tumor biology and perspective of aptamer-modified exosomes in cancer therapy.

New insights into targeted therapy of glioblastoma using smart nanoparticles

In recent times, the intersection of nanotechnology and biomedical research has given rise to nanobiomedicine, a captivating realm that holds immense promise for revolutionizing diagnostic and therapeutic approaches in the field of cancer. This innovative fusion of biology, medicine, and nanotechnology aims to create diagnostic and therapeutic agents with enhanced safety and efficacy, particularly in the realm of theranostics for various malignancies. Diverse inorganic, organic, and hybrid organic-inorganic nanoparticles, each possessing unique properties, have been introduced into this domain. This review seeks to highlight the latest strides in targeted glioblastoma therapy by focusing on the application of inorganic smart nanoparticles. Beyond exploring the general role of nanotechnology in medical applications, this review delves into groundbreaking strategies for glioblastoma treatment, showcasing the potential of smart nanoparticles through in vitro studies, in vivo investigations, and ongoing clinical trials.

Approaches to Characterize and Quantify Extracellular Vesicle Surface Conjugation Efficiency

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are cell-secreted nanovesicles that play an important role in long-range cell-cell communication. Although EVs pose a promising alternative to cell-based therapy, targeted in vivo delivery still falls short. Many studies have explored the surface modification of EVs to enhance their targeting capabilities. However, to our knowledge, there are no standardized practices to confirm the successful surface modification of EVs or calculate the degree of conjugation on EV surfaces (conjugation efficiency). These pieces of information are essential in the reproducibility of targeted EV therapeutics and the determination of optimized conjugation conditions for EVs to see significant therapeutic effects in vitro and in vivo. This review will discuss the vast array of techniques adopted, technologies developed, and efficiency definitions made by studies that have calculated EV/nanoparticle surface conjugation efficiency and how differences between studies may contribute to differently reported conjugation efficiencies.

Engineered mesenchymal stem cell-derived small extracellular vesicles for diabetic retinopathy therapy through HIF-1α/EZH2/PGC-1α pathway

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a leading cause of blindness worldwide with limited treatment options. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived small extracellular vesicles (MSC-sEVs) hold promise as a cell-free therapy for retinal diseases. In this study, we present evidence that the intravitreal injection of MSC-sEVs improved retinal function and alleviated retinal apoptosis, inflammation, and angiogenesis in both db/db mice and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Mechanistically, hyperglycemia-induced activation of hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) inhibited the tripartite motif 21 (TRIM21)-mediated ubiquitination and degradation of enhancer of zeste homologue 2 (EZH2), ultimately resulting in the downregulation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) through EZH2-induced methylation modification. The presence of miR-5068 and miR-10228 in MSC-sEVs targeted the HIF-1α/EZH2/PGC-1α pathway. The blockade of miR-5068 and miR-10228 abolished the retinal therapeutic effects of MSC-sEVs. Additionally, we engineered MSC-sEVs with elevated levels of miR-5068 and miR-10228 to enhance retinal repair efficiency. Together, our findings provide novel insights into the mechanism underlying DR progress and highlight the potential of MSC-sEVs, especially engineered MSC-sEVs, as a therapeutic option for DR.

Extracellular Vesicles as Delivery Systems in Disease Therapy

Extracellular vesicles (EVs)/exosomes are nanosized membrane-bound structures that are released by virtually all cells. EVs have attracted great attention in the scientific community since the discovery of their roles in cell-to-cell communication. EVs' enclosed structure protects bioactive molecules from degradation in the extracellular space and targets specific tissues according to the topography of membrane proteins. Upon absorption by recipient cells, EV cargo can modify the transcription machinery and alter the cellular functions of these cells, playing a role in disease pathogenesis. EVs have been tested as the delivery system for the mRNA COVID-19 vaccine. Recently, different therapeutic strategies have been designed to use EVs as a delivery system for microRNAs and mRNA. In this review, we will focus on the exciting and various platforms related to using EVs as delivery vehicles, mainly in gene editing using CRISPR/Cas9, cancer therapy, drug delivery, and vaccines. We will also touch upon their roles in disease pathogenesis.

Engineered small extracellular vesicles as a novel platform to suppress human oncovirus-associated cancers

BACKGROUND

Cancer, as a complex, heterogeneous disease, is currently affecting millions of people worldwide. Even if the most common traditional treatments, namely, chemotherapy (CTx) and radiotherapy (RTx), have been so far effective in some conditions, there is still a dire need for novel, innovative approaches to treat types of cancer. In this context, oncoviruses are responsible for 12% of all malignancies, such as human papillomavirus (HPV), Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8), as well as hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV), and the poorest in the world also account for 80% of all human cancer cases. Against this background, nanomedicine has developed nano-based drug delivery systems (DDS) to meet the demand for drug delivery vectors, e.g., extracellular vesicles (EVs). This review article aimed to explore the potential of engineered small EVs (sEVs) in suppressing human oncovirus-associated cancers.

METHODS

Our search was conducted for published research between 2000 and 2022 using several international databases, including Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. We also reviewed additional evidence from relevant published articles.

RESULTS

In this line, the findings revealed that EV engineering as a new field is witnessing the development of novel sEV-based structures, and it is expected to be advanced in the future. EVs may be further exploited in specialized applications as therapeutic or diagnostic tools. The techniques of biotechnology have been additionally utilized to create synthetic bilayers based on the physical and chemical properties of parent molecules via a top-down strategy for downsizing complicated, big particles into nano-sized sEVs.

CONCLUSION

As the final point, EV-mediated treatments are less toxic to the body than the most conventional ones, making them a safer and even more effective option. Although many in vitro studies have so far tested the efficacy of sEVs, further research is still needed to develop their potential in animal and clinical trials to reap the therapeutic benefits of this promising platform.

Plant and mammalian-derived extracellular vesicles: a new therapeutic approach for the future

Background: In recent years, extracellular vesicles have been recognized as important mediators of intercellular communication through the transfer of active biomolecules (proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids) across the plant and animal kingdoms and have considerable roles in several physiological and pathological mechanisms, showing great promise as new therapeutic strategies for a variety of pathologies. Methods: In this study, we carefully reviewed the numerous articles published over the last few decades on the general knowledge of extracellular vesicles, their application in the therapy of various pathologies, and their prospects as an approach for the future. Results: The recent discovery and characterization of extracellular vesicles (EVs) of diverse origins and biogenesis have altered the current paradigm of intercellular communication, opening up new diagnostic and therapeutic perspectives. Research into these EVs released by plant and mammalian cells has revealed their involvement in a number of physiological and pathological mechanisms, such as embryonic development, immune response, tissue regeneration, and cancer. They are also being studied as potential biomarkers for disease diagnosis and vectors for drug delivery. Conclusion: Nanovesicles represent powerful tools for intercellular communication and the transfer of bioactive molecules. Their molecular composition and functions can vary according to their origin (plant and mammalian), so their formation, composition, and biological roles open the way to therapeutic applications in a variety of pathologies, which is arousing growing interest in the scientific community. Clinical Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT03608631.

Clinical Theranostics Trademark of Exosome in Glioblastoma Metastasis

Glioblastoma (GBM) is an aggressive type of cancer that has led to the death of a large population. The traditional approach fails to develop a solution for GBM's suffering life. Extensive research into tumor microenvironments (TME) indicates that TME extracellular vesicles (EVs) play a vital role in cancer development and progression. EVs are classified into microvacuoles, apoptotic bodies, and exosomes. Exosomes are the most highlighted domains in cancer research. GBM cell-derived exosomes participate in multiple cancer progression events such as immune suppression, angiogenesis, premetastatic niche formation (PMN), ECM (extracellular matrix), EMT (epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition), metastasis, cancer stem cell development and therapeutic and drug resistance. GBM exosomes also carry the signature of a glioblastoma-related status. The exosome-based GBM examination is part of the new generation of liquid biopsy. It also solved early diagnostic limitations in GBM. Traditional therapeutic approaches do not cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Exosomes are a game changer in GBM treatment and it is emerging as a potential platform for effective, efficient, and specific therapeutic development. In this review, we have explored the exosome-GBM interlink, the clinical impact of exosomes on GBM biomarkers, the therapeutics signature of exosomes in GBM, exosome-based research challenges, and future directions in GBM. Therefore, the GBM-derived exosomes offer unique therapeutic opportunities, which are currently under preclinical and clinical testing.

Strategies for Engineering of Extracellular Vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membrane vesicles released by cells into the extracellular space. EVs mediate cell-to-cell communication through local and systemic transportation of biomolecules such as DNA, RNA, transcription factors, cytokines, chemokines, enzymes, lipids, and organelles within the human body. EVs gained a particular interest from cancer biology scientists because of their role in the modulation of the tumor microenvironment through delivering bioactive molecules. In this respect, EVs represent an attractive therapeutic target and a means for drug delivery. The advantages of EVs include their biocompatibility, small size, and low immunogenicity. However, there are several limitations that restrict the widespread use of EVs in therapy, namely, their low specificity and payload capacity. Thus, in order to enhance the therapeutic efficacy and delivery specificity, the surface and composition of extracellular vesicles should be modified accordingly. In this review, we describe various approaches to engineering EVs, and further discuss their advantages and disadvantages to promote the application of EVs in clinical practice.

The Long Journey of Extracellular Vesicles towards Global Scientific Acclamation

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a heterogeneous class of cell-derived vesicles that are responsible for eliciting a wide array of biological processes. After decades of intense investigation, the therapeutic potential of EVs will be finally explored in a series of upcoming clinical trials. EVs are rapidly changing the understanding of human physiology and will undoubtedly transform the field of medicine. The applicability of EVs as diagnostic biomarkers and treatment vectors has captured the attention of the scientific community and investors, facilitating the rapid progression of numerous EVs-based platforms. This mini-review provides an outline of the pioneering discoveries, and their respective significances, on progressing EVs toward clinical use. We focus the attention of the readers on several promising classes of EVs that hold major opportunities to translate in clinical practice. Market analysis and future challenges facing EVs-based therapies are also discussed.

Tumor Microenvironment Role in Pancreatic Cancer Stem Cells

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a highly lethal malignancy with a majority of patients presenting with unresectable or metastatic disease, resulting in a poor 5-year survival rate. This, in turn, is due to a highly complex tumor microenvironment and the presence of cancer stem cells, both of which induce therapy resistance and tumor relapse. Therefore, understanding and targeting the tumor microenvironment and cancer stem cells may be key strategies for designing effective PDAC therapies. In the present review, we summarized recent advances in the role of tumor microenvironment in pancreatic neoplastic progression.

The Power of Field-Flow Fractionation in Characterization of Nanoparticles in Drug Delivery

Asymmetric-flow field-flow fractionation (AF4) is a gentle, flexible, and powerful separation technique that is widely utilized for fractionating nanometer-sized analytes, which extend to many emerging nanocarriers for drug delivery, including lipid-, virus-, and polymer-based nanoparticles. To ascertain quality attributes and suitability of these nanostructures as drug delivery systems, including particle size distributions, shape, morphology, composition, and stability, it is imperative that comprehensive analytical tools be used to characterize the native properties of these nanoparticles. The capacity for AF4 to be readily coupled to multiple online detectors (MD-AF4) or non-destructively fractionated and analyzed offline make this technique broadly compatible with a multitude of characterization strategies, which can provide insight on size, mass, shape, dispersity, and many other critical quality attributes. This review will critically investigate MD-AF4 reports for characterizing nanoparticles in drug delivery, especially those reported in the last 10-15 years that characterize multiple attributes simultaneously downstream from fractionation.

Metallic Nanoparticles: Their Potential Role in Breast Cancer Immunotherapy via Trained Immunity Provocation

Owing to drawbacks in the current common cancer therapies including surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy, the development of more reliable, low toxic, cost-effective and specific approaches such as immunotherapy is crucial. Breast cancer is among the leading causes of morbidity and mortality with a developed anticancer resistance. Accordingly, we attempted to uncover the efficacy of metallic nanoparticles (MNPs)-based breast cancer immunotherapy emphasizing trained immunity provocation or innate immunity adaptation. Due to the immunosuppressive nature of the tumor microenvironment (TME) and the poor infiltration of immune cells, the potentiation of an immune response or direct combat is a goal employing NPs as a burgeoning field. During the recent decades, the adaptation of the innate immunity responses against infectious diseases and cancer has been recognized. Although the data is in a scarcity with regard to a trained immunity function in breast cancer cells' elimination, this study introduced the potential of this arm of immunity adaptation using MNPs.

Advances in Drug Delivery Systems Based on Red Blood Cells and Their Membrane-Derived Nanoparticles

Red blood cells (RBCs) and RBC membrane-derived nanoparticles have been historically developed as bioinspired drug delivery systems to combat the issues of premature clearance, toxicity, and immunogenicity of synthetic nanocarriers. RBC-based delivery systems possess characteristics including biocompatibility, biodegradability, and long circulation time, which make them suited for systemic administration. Therefore, they have been employed in designing optimal drug formulations in various preclinical models and clinical trials to treat a wide range of diseases. In this review, we provide an overview of the biology, synthesis, and characterization of drug delivery systems based on RBCs and their membrane including whole RBCs, RBC membrane-camouflaged nanoparticles, RBC-derived extracellular vesicles, and RBC hitchhiking. We also highlight conventional and latest engineering strategies, along with various therapeutic modalities, for enhanced precision and effectiveness of drug delivery. Additionally, we focus on the current state of RBC-based therapeutic applications and their clinical translation as drug carriers, as well as discussing opportunities and challenges associated with these systems.

Extracellular vesicles: emerging anti-cancer drugs and advanced functionalization platforms for cancer therapy

Increasing evidences show that unmodified extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from various cells can effectively inhibit the malignant progression of different types of tumors by delivering the bioactive molecules. Therefore, EVs are expected to be developed as emerging anticancer drugs. Meanwhile, unmodified EVs as an advanced and promising nanocarrier that is frequently used in targeted delivery therapeutic cargos and personalized reagents for the treatment and diagnosis of cancer. To improve the efficacy of EV-based treatments, researchers are trying to engineering EVs as an emerging nanomedicine translational therapy platform through biological, physical and chemical approaches, which can be broaden and altered to enhance their therapeutic capability. EVs loaded with therapeutic components such as tumor suppressor drugs, siRNAs, proteins, peptides, and conjugates exhibit significantly enhanced anti-tumor effects. Moreover, the design and preparation of tumor-targeted modified EVs greatly enhance the specificity and effectiveness of tumor therapy, and these strategies are expected to become novel ideas for tumor precision medicine. This review will focus on reviewing the latest research progress of functionalized EVs, clarifying the superior biological functions and powerful therapeutic potential of EVs, for researchers to explore new design concepts based on EVs and build next-generation nanomedicine therapeutic platforms.

Engineered extracellular vesicles with high collagen-binding affinity present superior in situ retention and therapeutic efficacy in tissue repair

Although stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) have remarkable therapeutic potential for various diseases, the therapeutic efficacy of EVs is limited due to their degradation and rapid diffusion after administration, hindering their translational applications. Here, we developed a new generation of collagen-binding EVs, by chemically conjugating a collagen-binding peptide SILY to EVs (SILY-EVs), which were designed to bind to collagen in the extracellular matrix (ECM) and form an EV-ECM complex to improve EVs' in situ retention and therapeutic efficacy after transplantation. Methods: SILY was conjugated to the surface of mesenchymal stem/stromal cell (MSC)-derived EVs by using click chemistry to construct SILY-EVs. Nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA), ExoView analysis, cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM) and western-blot analysis were used to characterize the SILY-EVs. Fluorescence imaging (FLI), MTS assay, ELISA and reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) were used to evaluate the collagen binding and biological functions of SILY-EVs in vitro. In a mouse hind limb ischemia model, the in vivo imaging system (IVIS), laser doppler perfusion imaging (LDPI), micro-CT, FLI and RT-qPCR were used to determine the SILY-EV retention, inflammatory response, blood perfusion, gene expression, and tissue regeneration. Results:In vitro, the SILY conjugation significantly enhanced EV adhesion to the collagen surface and did not alter the EVs' biological functions. In the mouse hind limb ischemia model, SILY-EVs presented longer in situ retention, suppressed inflammatory responses, and significantly augmented muscle regeneration and vascularization, compared to the unmodified EVs. Conclusion: With the broad distribution of collagen in various tissues and organs, SILY-EVs hold promise to improve the therapeutic efficacy of EV-mediated treatment in a wide range of diseases and disorders. Moreover, SILY-EVs possess the potential to functionalize collagen-based biomaterials and deliver therapeutic agents for regenerative medicine applications.

Molecular Landscape of LncRNAs in Prostate Cancer: A focus on pathways and therapeutic targets for intervention

Background

One of the most malignant tumors in men is prostate cancer that is still incurable due to its heterogenous and progressive natures. Genetic and epigenetic changes play significant roles in its development. The RNA molecules with more than 200 nucleotides in length are known as lncRNAs and these epigenetic factors do not encode protein. They regulate gene expression at transcriptional, post-transcriptional and epigenetic levels. LncRNAs play vital biological functions in cells and in pathological events, hence their expression undergoes dysregulation.

Aim of review

The role of epigenetic alterations in prostate cancer development are emphasized here. Therefore, lncRNAs were chosen for this purpose and their expression level and interaction with other signaling networks in prostate cancer progression were examined.

Key scientific concepts of review

The aberrant expression of lncRNAs in prostate cancer has been well-documented and progression rate of tumor cells are regulated via affecting STAT3, NF-κB, Wnt, PI3K/Akt and PTEN, among other molecular pathways. Furthermore, lncRNAs regulate radio-resistance and chemo-resistance features of prostate tumor cells. Overexpression of tumor-promoting lncRNAs such as HOXD-AS1 and CCAT1 can result in drug resistance. Besides, lncRNAs can induce immune evasion of prostate cancer via upregulating PD-1. Pharmacological compounds such as quercetin and curcumin have been applied for targeting lncRNAs. Furthermore, siRNA tool can reduce expression of lncRNAs thereby suppressing prostate cancer progression. Prognosis and diagnosis of prostate tumor at clinical course can be evaluated by lncRNAs. The expression level of exosomal lncRNAs such as lncRNA-p21 can be investigated in serum of prostate cancer patients as a reliable biomarker.

Emerging role of exosomes in cancer progression and tumor microenvironment remodeling

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide, and the factors responsible for its progression need to be elucidated. Exosomes are structures with an average size of 100 nm that can transport proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. This review focuses on the role of exosomes in cancer progression and therapy. We discuss how exosomes are able to modulate components of the tumor microenvironment and influence proliferation and migration rates of cancer cells. We also highlight that, depending on their cargo, exosomes can suppress or promote tumor cell progression and can enhance or reduce cancer cell response to radio- and chemo-therapies. In addition, we describe how exosomes can trigger chronic inflammation and lead to immune evasion and tumor progression by focusing on their ability to transfer non-coding RNAs between cells and modulate other molecular signaling pathways such as PTEN and PI3K/Akt in cancer. Subsequently, we discuss the use of exosomes as carriers of anti-tumor agents and genetic tools to control cancer progression. We then discuss the role of tumor-derived exosomes in carcinogenesis. Finally, we devote a section to the study of exosomes as diagnostic and prognostic tools in clinical courses that is important for the treatment of cancer patients. This review provides a comprehensive understanding of the role of exosomes in cancer therapy, focusing on their therapeutic value in cancer progression and remodeling of the tumor microenvironment.

The in vivo fate and targeting engineering of crossover vesicle-based gene delivery system

Exosomes and biomimetic vesicles are widely used for gene delivery because of their excellent gene loading capacity and stability and their natural targeting delivery potential. These vesicles take advantages of both cell-based bioactive delivery system and synthetical lipid-derived nanovectors to form crossover characteristics. To further optimize the specific targeting properties of crossover vesicles, studies of their in vivo fate and various engineering approaches including nanobiotechnology are required. This review describes the preparation process of exosomes and biomimetic vesicles, and summarizes the mechanism of loading and delivery of nucleic acids or gene editing systems. We provide a comprehensive overview of the techniques employed for preparing the targeting crossover vesicles based on their cellular uptake and targeting mechanism. To delineate the future prospects of crossover vesicle gene delivery systems, various challenges and clinical applications of vesicles have also been discussed.

Exosomes as Promising Nanostructures in Diabetes Mellitus: From Insulin Sensitivity to Ameliorating Diabetic Complications

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is among the chronic metabolic disorders that its incidence rate has shown an increase in developed and wealthy countries due to lifestyle and obesity. The treatment of DM has always been of interest, and significant effort has been made in this field. Exosomes belong to extracellular vesicles with nanosized features (30-150 nm) that are involved in cell-to-cell communication and preserving homeostasis. The function of exosomes is different based on their cargo, and they may contain lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. The present review focuses on the application of exosomes in the treatment of DM; both glucose and lipid levels are significantly affected by exosomes, and these nanostructures enhance lipid metabolism and decrease its deposition. Furthermore, exosomes promote glucose metabolism and affect the level of glycolytic enzymes and glucose transporters in DM. Type I DM results from the destruction of β cells in the pancreas, and exosomes can be employed to ameliorate apoptosis and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in these cells. The exosomes have dual functions in mediating insulin resistance/sensitivity, and M1 macrophage-derived exosomes inhibit insulin secretion. The exosomes may contain miRNAs, and by transferring among cells, they can regulate various molecular pathways such as AMPK, PI3K/Akt, and β-catenin to affect DM progression. Noteworthy, exosomes are present in different body fluids such as blood circulation, and they can be employed as biomarkers for the diagnosis of diabetic patients. Future studies should focus on engineering exosomes derived from sources such as mesenchymal stem cells to treat DM as a novel strategy.

New Advances in Exosome-based Targeted Drug Delivery Systems

In recent years, various drug nano-delivery platforms have emerged to enhance drug effectiveness in cancer treatment. However, their successful translation to clinics have been hampered by unwanted side effects, as well as associated toxicity. Therefore, there is an imperative need for drug delivery vehicles capable of surpassing cellular barriers and also efficiently transfer therapeutic payloads to tumor cells. Exosomes, a class of small extracellular vesicles naturally released from all cells, have been exploited as a favorable delivery vehicle due to their natural role in intracellular communication and biocompatibility. In this review, information on exosome biogenesis, contents, forms of isolation and their natural functions is discussed, further complemented with the various successful methodologies for therapeutic payloads encapsulation, including distinct loading approaches. In addition, grafting of molecules to improve pharmacokinetics, tumor homing-ligands, as well as stimuli-responsive elements to enhance cell specificity are also debated. In the end, the current status of clinical-grade exosome-based therapies is outlined.

Microfluidic Tools for Enhanced Characterization of Therapeutic Stem Cells and Prediction of Their Potential Antimicrobial Secretome

Antibiotic resistance is creating enormous attention on the development of new antibiotic-free therapy strategies for bacterial diseases. Mesenchymal stromal stem cells (MSCs) are the most promising candidates in current clinical trials and included in several cell-therapy protocols. Together with the well-known immunomodulatory and regenerative potential of the MSC secretome, these cells have shown direct and indirect anti-bacterial effects. However, the low reproducibility and standardization of MSCs from different sources are the current limitations prior to the purification of cell-free secreted antimicrobial peptides and exosomes. In order to improve MSC characterization, novel label-free functional tests, evaluating the biophysical properties of the cells, will be advantageous for their cell profiling, population sorting, and quality control. We discuss the potential of emerging microfluidic technologies providing new insights into density, shape, and size of live cells, starting from heterogeneous or 3D cultured samples. The prospective application of these technologies to studying MSC populations may contribute to developing new biopharmaceutical strategies with a view to naturally overcoming bacterial defense mechanisms.

Harnessing the therapeutic potential of extracellular vesicles for cancer treatment

Cancer therapeutic strategies include surgeries, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, targeted therapy and immunotherapies. However, current cancer treatment still faces challenges such as postoperative residuals, postoperative recurrence, chemoradiotherapy resistance and lack of drugs with high specificity, due to the complexity of the cancer environment. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid-capsuled membrane vesicles secreted from cells, communicating vital messages between cells and regarding function in tumorigenesis and metastasis. Investigation of compositions and functions of EVs may open unprecedented, promising avenues for cancer therapeutics. This review brings new perspectives from both researchers and clinicians in the EV field, emphasizing the ties between basic research and ongoing clinical trials. In sum, our review summarizes the roles EVs play in cancer therapy, ranging from mechanisms to applications in cancer treatment. In particular, it focuses on their therapeutic potential with an eye toward clinical relevance.

The role and application of small extracellular vesicles in gastric cancer

Gastric cancer (GC) is a common tumour that affects humans worldwide, is highly malignant and has a poor prognosis. Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs), especially exosomes, are nanoscale vesicles released by various cells that deliver bioactive molecules to recipient cells, affecting their biological characteristics, changing the tumour microenvironment and producing long-distance effects. In recent years, many studies have clarified the mechanisms by which sEVs function with regard to the initiation, progression, angiogenesis, metastasis and chemoresistance of GC. These molecules can function as mediators of cell-cell communication in the tumour microenvironment and might affect the efficacy of immunotherapy. Due to their unique physiochemical characteristics, sEVs show potential as effective antitumour vaccines as well as drug carriers. In this review, we summarize the roles of sEVs in GC and highlight the clinical application prospects in the future.