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Zhao C, Xie H, Huang H, Cai Y, Chen Z, Cheng J, Xiang D, Li D, Li Z, Wu Y. Superhydrophobic/ superoleophilic polystyrene-based porous material with superelasticity for highly efficient and continuous oil/water separation in harsh environments. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 472:134566. [PMID: 38743973 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.134566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2023] [Revised: 03/09/2024] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
Three-dimensional separation materials with robust physical/chemical stability have great demand for effective and continuous separation of immiscible oil/water mixtures and water-in-oil emulsions, resulting from chemical leakages and discharge of industrial oily wastewaters. Herein, a superelastic polystyrene-based porous material with superhydrophobicity/superoleophilicity was designed and prepared by high internal phase emulsion polymerization to meet the aforementioned requirements. A flexible and hydrophobic aminopropyl terminated polydimethylsiloxane (NH2-PDMS-NH2) segment was introduced into the rigid styrene-divinylbenzene copolymer through 1, 4-conjugate addition reaction with trimethylolpropane triacrylate. The addition of NH2-PDMS-NH2 simultaneously improved the mechanical and hydrophobic properties of the porous material (the water contact angle from 141.2° to 152.2°). The material exhibited outstanding reversible compressibility (80% strain, even in liquid N2 environments) and superhydrophobic stability, even after being repeatedly compressed 100 times, water contact angle still remained above 150°. Meanwhile, the as-prepared material had outstanding hydrophobic stability in corrosive solutions (strong acidic, alkaline, high-salty, and even strong polar solvent), presence of mechanical interference, strong UV radiations, and high/low temperature environments. More importantly, the material could continuously and efficiently separate immiscible oil/water mixture and water-in-oil emulsions under the above conditions, showing huge potential for the large-scale remediation of complex oily wastewaters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunxia Zhao
- School of New Energy and Materials, Southwest Petroleum University, Chengdu 610500, China; The Center of Functional Materials for Working Fluids of Oil and Gas Field, Sichuan Engineering Technology Research Center of Basalt Fiber Composites Development and Application, Southwest Petroleum University, Chengdu 610500, China.
| | - Hongxia Xie
- School of New Energy and Materials, Southwest Petroleum University, Chengdu 610500, China
| | - Haoran Huang
- School of New Energy and Materials, Southwest Petroleum University, Chengdu 610500, China.
| | - Yi Cai
- School of New Energy and Materials, Southwest Petroleum University, Chengdu 610500, China
| | - Zhuo Chen
- School of New Energy and Materials, Southwest Petroleum University, Chengdu 610500, China
| | - Jinbo Cheng
- School of New Energy and Materials, Southwest Petroleum University, Chengdu 610500, China; The Center of Functional Materials for Working Fluids of Oil and Gas Field, Sichuan Engineering Technology Research Center of Basalt Fiber Composites Development and Application, Southwest Petroleum University, Chengdu 610500, China
| | - Dong Xiang
- School of New Energy and Materials, Southwest Petroleum University, Chengdu 610500, China; The Center of Functional Materials for Working Fluids of Oil and Gas Field, Sichuan Engineering Technology Research Center of Basalt Fiber Composites Development and Application, Southwest Petroleum University, Chengdu 610500, China
| | - Dong Li
- School of New Energy and Materials, Southwest Petroleum University, Chengdu 610500, China
| | - Zhenyu Li
- School of New Energy and Materials, Southwest Petroleum University, Chengdu 610500, China; The Center of Functional Materials for Working Fluids of Oil and Gas Field, Sichuan Engineering Technology Research Center of Basalt Fiber Composites Development and Application, Southwest Petroleum University, Chengdu 610500, China
| | - Yuanpeng Wu
- School of New Energy and Materials, Southwest Petroleum University, Chengdu 610500, China; The Center of Functional Materials for Working Fluids of Oil and Gas Field, Sichuan Engineering Technology Research Center of Basalt Fiber Composites Development and Application, Southwest Petroleum University, Chengdu 610500, China.
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Song Y, Miao K, Liu J, Kang Y, Zou D, Zhong Z. In Situ-Grown Al 2O 3 Nanoflowers and Hydrophobic Modification Enable Superhydrophobic SiC Ceramic Membranes for Membrane Distillation. MEMBRANES 2024; 14:117. [PMID: 38786951 PMCID: PMC11123319 DOI: 10.3390/membranes14050117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2024] [Revised: 05/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
Membrane distillation (MD) is considered a promising technology for desalination. In the MD process, membrane pores are easily contaminated and wetted, which will degrade the permeate flux and salt rejection of the membrane. In this work, SiC ceramic membranes were used as the supports, and an Al2O3 micro-nano structure was constructed on its surface. The surface energy of Al2O3@SiC micro-nano composite membranes was reduced by organosilane grafting modification. The effective deposition of Al2O3 nanoflowers on the membrane surface increased membrane roughness and enhanced the anti-fouling and anti-wetting properties of the membranes. Simultaneously, the presence of nanoflowers also regulated the pore structures and thus decreased the membrane pore size. In addition, the effects of Al2(SO4)3 concentration and sintering temperature on the surface morphology and performance of the membranes were investigated in detail. It was demonstrated that the water contact angle of the resulting membrane was 152.4°, which was higher than that of the pristine membrane (138.8°). In the treatment of saline water containing 35 g/L of NaCl, the permeate flux was about 11.1 kg⋅m-2⋅h-1 and the salt rejection was above 99.9%. Note that the pristine ceramic membrane cannot be employed for MD due to its larger membrane pore size. This work provides a new method for preparing superhydrophobic ceramic membranes for MD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuqi Song
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China; (Y.S.); (K.M.); (J.L.); (Y.K.)
| | - Kai Miao
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China; (Y.S.); (K.M.); (J.L.); (Y.K.)
| | - Jinxin Liu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China; (Y.S.); (K.M.); (J.L.); (Y.K.)
| | - Yutang Kang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China; (Y.S.); (K.M.); (J.L.); (Y.K.)
| | - Dong Zou
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China; (Y.S.); (K.M.); (J.L.); (Y.K.)
| | - Zhaoxiang Zhong
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China; (Y.S.); (K.M.); (J.L.); (Y.K.)
- National Engineering Research Center for Special Separation Membrane, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
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Guo Q, Ma J, Yin T, Jin H, Zheng J, Gao H. Superhydrophobic Non-Metallic Surfaces with Multiscale Nano/Micro-Structure: Fabrication and Application. Molecules 2024; 29:2098. [PMID: 38731589 PMCID: PMC11085871 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29092098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2024] [Revised: 04/19/2024] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Multiscale nano/micro-structured surfaces with superhydrophobicity are abundantly observed in nature such as lotus leaves, rose petals and butterfly wings, where microstructures typically reinforce mechanical stability, while nanostructures predominantly govern wettability. To emulate such hierarchical structures in nature, various methods have been widely applied in the past few decades to the manufacture of multiscale structures which can be applied to functionalities ranging from anti-icing and water-oil separation to self-cleaning. In this review, we highlight recent advances in nano/micro-structured superhydrophobic surfaces, with particular focus on non-metallic materials as they are widely used in daily life due to their lightweight, abrasion resistance and ease of processing properties. This review is organized into three sections. First, fabrication methods of multiscale hierarchical structures are introduced with their strengths and weaknesses. Second, four main application areas of anti-icing, water-oil separation, anti-fog and self-cleaning are overviewed by assessing how and why multiscale structures need to be incorporated to carry out their performances. Finally, future directions and challenges for nano/micro-structured surfaces are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Guo
- School of Aeronautic Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China; (Q.G.); (J.M.); (T.Y.); (H.J.); (J.Z.)
| | - Jieyin Ma
- School of Aeronautic Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China; (Q.G.); (J.M.); (T.Y.); (H.J.); (J.Z.)
| | - Tianjun Yin
- School of Aeronautic Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China; (Q.G.); (J.M.); (T.Y.); (H.J.); (J.Z.)
| | - Haichuan Jin
- School of Aeronautic Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China; (Q.G.); (J.M.); (T.Y.); (H.J.); (J.Z.)
| | - Jiaxiang Zheng
- School of Aeronautic Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China; (Q.G.); (J.M.); (T.Y.); (H.J.); (J.Z.)
| | - Hui Gao
- School of Aeronautic Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China; (Q.G.); (J.M.); (T.Y.); (H.J.); (J.Z.)
- Ningbo Institute of Technology, Beihang University, Ningbo 315100, China
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Wang D, Huang L, Fang H, Li S, Wang G, Zhou S, Zhao R, Sun X. Activated carbon fibers functionalized with superhydrophilic coated pDA/TiO 2/SiO 2 with photoluminescent self-cleaning properties for efficient oil-water separation. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 465:133373. [PMID: 38159520 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.133373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2023] [Revised: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 12/23/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
The adhesion of high-viscosity oil contamination poses limitations on three-dimensional (3D) materials' practical use in treating oilfield-produced water (OPW). In this study, we developed a hybrid pDA/TiO2/SiO2 coating (PTS) on the surface of hydrophilic activated carbon (ACF1) through a combination of dopamine (DA) polymerization, ethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) hydrolysis, and the condensation of TiO2 nanoparticles (NPs) with SiO2 NPs. This coating was designed for gravity-based oil-water separation. The inherent porosity and generous pore size of ACF1-PTS conferred it an ultra-high permeation flux (pure water flux of 3.72 × 105 L∙m-2∙h-1), allowing it to effectively separate simulated oil-water mixtures and oil-water emulsions while maintaining exceptional permeation flux and oil rejection efficiency. When compared to cleaning methods involving ethanol aqueous solutions and NaClO, ultraviolet (UV) illumination cleaning proved superior, enabling oil-contaminated ACF1-PTS to exhibit remarkable flux recovery efficiency and oil-removal capabilities during cyclic separation of actual OPW. Furthermore, the ACF1-PTS material demonstrated impressive stability and durability when exposed to acidic environments (acid, alkali, and salt), robust hydraulic washout conditions, and 25-cycle tests. This study offers valuable insights and research avenues for the development of highly efficient and environmentally friendly 3D oil-water separation materials for the actual treatment of OPW.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongdong Wang
- School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, 73 Huanghe Road, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Likun Huang
- School of Food Engineering, Harbin University of Commerce, Harbin 150076, China.
| | - Hanxiao Fang
- School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, 73 Huanghe Road, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Shaofang Li
- School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, 73 Huanghe Road, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Guangzhi Wang
- School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, 73 Huanghe Road, Harbin 150090, China; State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, 73 Huanghe Road, Harbin 150090, China.
| | - Simin Zhou
- School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, 73 Huanghe Road, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Rui Zhao
- School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, 73 Huanghe Road, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Xiyu Sun
- School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, 73 Huanghe Road, Harbin 150090, China
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Yang Y, Dong J, Wang R, Lin Z, Cai Z. Urchin-like fluorinated covalent organic frameworks decorated fabric for effective self-cleaning and versatile oil/water separation. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 459:132149. [PMID: 37536158 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 07/23/2023] [Indexed: 08/05/2023]
Abstract
Oil contamination and industrial organic pollutants emission have been a serious problem affecting the ecological and residential environment. Membrane-based separation shows great application prospect due to its low-cost, environmental-friendly and easy operation. Therefore, the development of efficient oil-water separation membranes is highly desirable. Herein, a fabric filter with superwettability was prepared by coating urchin-like fluorinated covalent organic frameworks (COFs) on fabric, which was well utilized in filtering immiscible oil-water mixture and surfactant-stabilized water-in-oil emulsion driven only by gravity for the first time. The as-prepared COF fabric filter (defined as fabric@u-FCOF) possessed many outstanding properties, including superhydrophobicity with the water contact angle of approximately 151.6°, satisfactory resistance for alkaline, acidic and saline environments, as well as superior mechanical durability under harsh conditions. Because of the super-micropore of fabric@u-FCOF and the nanopore in the COF coating, the obtained fabric@u-FCOF exhibited excellent performances in terms of separation efficiency and permeability, in which the oil flux was up to 16964 L·m-1·h-2 and separation efficiency for the mixed o-dichlorobenzene/water was higher than 99.4%. In addition, the fabric@u-FCOF also showed excellent self-cleaning performance due to the micro/nano hierarchical structure of its surface. These excellent properties make it an ideal candidate for applications of oil/water separation and water purification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yixin Yang
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Analytical Science for Food Safety and Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Analysis and Detection Technology for Food Safety, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350108, China
| | - Jinghan Dong
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Analytical Science for Food Safety and Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Analysis and Detection Technology for Food Safety, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350108, China
| | - Ran Wang
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Analytical Science for Food Safety and Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Analysis and Detection Technology for Food Safety, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350108, China
| | - Zian Lin
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Analytical Science for Food Safety and Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Analysis and Detection Technology for Food Safety, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350108, China.
| | - Zongwei Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental and Biological Analysis, Department of Chemistry, Hong Kong Baptist University, 224 Waterloo Road, Kowloon Tong, 999077 Hong Kong, SAR, PR China.
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Zhang YP, Wang YN, Wan L, Chen XX, Zhao CH. Superwetting Stainless Steel Mesh Used for Both Immiscible Oil/Water and Surfactant-Stabilized Emulsion Separation. MEMBRANES 2023; 13:808. [PMID: 37887980 PMCID: PMC10608510 DOI: 10.3390/membranes13100808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2023] [Revised: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
The design and fabrication of advanced membrane materials for versatile oil/water separation are major challenges. In this work, a superwetting stainless steel mesh (SSM) modified with in situ-grown TiO2 was successfully prepared via one-pot hydrothermal synthesis at 180 °C for 24 h. The modified SSM was characterized by means of scanning electron microscopy, energy spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis. The resultant SSM membrane was superhydrophilic/superoleophilic in air, superoleophobic underwater, with an oil contact angle (OCA) underwater of over 150°, and superhydrophobic under oil, with a water contact angle (WCA) as high as 158°. Facile separation of immiscible light oil/water and heavy oil/water was carried out using the prewetting method with water and oil, respectively. For both "oil-blocking" and "water-blocking" membranes, the separation efficiency was greater than 98%. Also, these SSMs wrapped in TiO2 nanoparticles broke emulsions well, separating oil-in-water and oil-in-water emulsions with an efficiency greater than 99.0%. The as-prepared superwetting materials provided a satisfactory solution for the complicated or versatile oil/water separation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Ping Zhang
- College of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Hunan University of Arts and Science, Changde 415000, China
- College of Ecology and Environment, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Ya-Ning Wang
- College of Ecology and Environment, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Li Wan
- College of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Hunan University of Arts and Science, Changde 415000, China
| | - Xin-Xin Chen
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang 453003, China
| | - Chang-Hua Zhao
- College of Ecology and Environment, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
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Dou B, Lin S, Wang Y, Yang L, Yao A, Liao H, Tian S, Shang J, Lan J. Versatile CO 2-responsive Sponges Decorated with ZIF-8 for Bidirectional Separation of Oil/Water and Controllable Removal of Dyes. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023; 15:37867-37883. [PMID: 37522905 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c03415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/01/2023]
Abstract
The complex wastewater containing water-soluble dyes and water-insoluble oils has given rise to significant environmental concerns that demand urgent remediation. Herein, a novel "smart" multifunctional sponge (ZIF-8@PMS) stepwise decorated with ZIF-8 nanoparticles and CO2-responsive copolymer (poly(2-(diethylamino) ethyl methacrylate-co-3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl acrylate-co-stearyl methacrylate) was successfully prepared for CO2 controllable oil/water separation and dyes removal. The results revealed that the sponge coated with CO2-responsive copolymer for three cycles (ZIF-8@PMS-3) exhibited optimal comprehensive properties. The ZIF-8@PMS-3 had excellent compressive-resilient characteristics and chemical stability. As expected, it displayed tunable wettability and charged state under the regulation of CO2. Based on these features, ZIF-8@PMS-3 presented highly efficient removal of oil and dyes, even for the dye-containing oil/water emulsions, via a synergistic combination of adsorption and separation methods. The adsorption capacity for oil and various organic solvents ranged from 21.3 to 50 g g-1. The maximum adsorption capacities toward anionic dyes: methyl orange with 1205.89 mg g-1 and methyl blue with 880.00 mg g-1 in the presence of CO2 through electrostatic interaction. In the absence of CO2, it achieved maximum adsorption capacities for cationic dyes, including malachite green with 1246.15 mg g-1 and rhodamine B with 203 mg g-1, primarily driven by π-π interactions. According to distinct adsorption mechanisms, ZIF-8@PMS-3 could selectively adsorb either anionic or cationic dyes by exploiting CO2 as a trigger. Furthermore, the separation efficiencies for both types of oil/water emulsions surpassed 99.9%, with respective fluxes of 1566.99 L m-2 h-1 (water-in-oil emulsion) and 310.37 L m-2 h-1 (oil-in-water emulsion). Additionally, the as-prepared sponges exhibited remarkable antibacterial properties and exceptional recyclability. Therefore, the ZIF-8@PMS-3 holds substantial promise for potential applications in practical industrial wastewater treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baojie Dou
- College of Biomass Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, P. R. China
| | - Shaojian Lin
- College of Biomass Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, P. R. China
- National Engineering Laboratory for Clean Technology of Leather Manufacture, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, P. R. China
| | - Yafang Wang
- College of Biomass Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, P. R. China
| | - Lin Yang
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Anrong Yao
- College of Biomass Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, P. R. China
| | - Hongjiang Liao
- College of Biomass Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, P. R. China
| | - Siyao Tian
- College of Biomass Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, P. R. China
| | - Jiaojiao Shang
- College of Biomass Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, P. R. China
- National Engineering Laboratory for Clean Technology of Leather Manufacture, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, P. R. China
| | - Jianwu Lan
- College of Biomass Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, P. R. China
- National Engineering Laboratory for Clean Technology of Leather Manufacture, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, P. R. China
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Fabrication of Durable Superhydrophobic Surface for Versatile Oil/Water Separation Based on HDTMS Modified PPy/ZnO. NANOMATERIALS 2022; 12:nano12142510. [PMID: 35889733 PMCID: PMC9322026 DOI: 10.3390/nano12142510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2022] [Revised: 07/17/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Superhydrophobic materials have been widely applied in rapid removal and collection of oils from oil/water mixtures for increasing damage to environment and human beings caused by oil-contaminated wastewater and oil spills. Herein, superhydrophobic materials were fabricated by a novel polypyrrole (PPy)/ZnO coating followed by hexadecyltrimethoxysilane (HDTMS) modification for versatile oil/water separation with high environmental and excellent reusability. The prepared superhydrophobic surfaces exhibited water contact angle (WCA) greater than 150° and SA less than 5°. The superhydrophobic fabric could be applied for separation of heavy oil or light oil/water mixtures and emulsions with the separation efficiencies above 98%. The coated fabric also realized highly efficient separation with harsh environmental solutions, such as acid, alkali, salt, and hot water. The superhydrophobic fabric still remained, even after 80 cycles of separation and 12 months of storage in air, proving excellent durability. These novel superhydrophobic materials have indicated great development potentials for oil/water separation in practical applications.
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