Determination of Patulin and Ochratoxin A using HPLC in apple juice samples in Saudi Arabia

Investigation of the simulated microgravity impact on heavy metal biosorption by Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Heavy metals are one of the most dangerous environmental pollutions, and their elimination is one of the health system's priorities. Microorganisms have been introduced as a safe absorber of such pollution and this ability is related to the characteristics of their surface layers. There are reports about some bacteria's increment of cell envelope thickness in space conditions. Therefore, this study investigated SMG effect on heavy metals biosorption using Saccharomyces (S.) cerevisiae. Furthermore, the stability of complex, isotherm, and kinetic absorption models has been investigated. The results showed that the SMG positively affected the biosorption of mercury (Hg) 97% and lead (Pb) 72.5% by S. cerevisiae. In contrast, it did not affect cadmium (Cd) and arsenic (As) biosorption. In gastrointestinal conditions, Hg, Cd, and As-yeast complexes were stable, and their biosorption increased. In the case of the Pb-yeast complex, in simulated gastric exposure, the binding decreased at first but increased again in simulated intestinal exposure in both SMG and normal gravity (NG). The metals' biosorption by yeast followed the pseudo-second-order kinetic and the Langmuir isotherm models for all metals (As) matched with Langmuir and Freundlich. The current research results demonstrate that microgravity provides desirable conditions for heavy metal biosorption by S. cerevisiae. Furthermore, the biosorbent-heavy metal complex remains stable after simulated gastrointestinal conditions. Altogether, the results of this study could be considered in detoxifying food and beverage industries and maintaining astronauts' health.

Exposure assessment of children to dietary mycotoxins: A pilot study conducted in Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil

Exposure to mycotoxins through food is a major health concern, especially for youngsters. This study performed a preliminary investigation on children's exposure to dietary mycotoxins in Ribeirão Preto, Brazil. Sampling procedures were conducted between August and December 2022, to collect foods (N = 213) available for consumption in the households of children (N = 67), including preschoolers (aged 3-6 years, n = 21), schoolers (aged 7-10 years, n = 15), and adolescents (aged 11-17 years, n = 31) cared in the Vila Lobato Community Social Medical Center of Ribeirão Preto. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) was used to determine concentrations of the mycotoxins in foods. Mycotoxins measured in all foods comprised aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), zearalenone (ZEN), T-2 toxin, deoxynivalenol (DON) and ochratoxin A (OTA). Higher incidence and levels were found for FBs, ZEN, and DON in several commonly consumed foods. Furthermore, 32.86 % foods had two to four quantifiable mycotoxins in various combinations. The mean estimated daily intake (EDI) values were lower than the tolerable daily intake (TDI) for AFs, FBs, and ZEN, but higher than the TDI (1.0 µg/kg bw/day) for DON, hence indicating a health risk for all children age groups. Preschoolers and adolescents were exposed to DON through wheat products (EDIs: 2.696 ± 7.372 and 1.484 ± 2.395 µg/kg body weight (bw)/day, respectively), while schoolers were exposed through wheat products (EDI: 1.595 ± 1.748 µg/kg bw/day) and rice (EDI: 1.391 ± 1.876 µg/kg bw/day). The results indicate that wheat-based foods and rice may be risky to children, implying the need for stringent measures to avoid DON contamination in these products.

Mycotoxin contamination in the Arab world: Highlighting the main knowledge gaps and the current legislation

Since the discovery of aflatoxins in the 1960s, knowledge in the mycotoxin research field has increased dramatically. Hundreds of review articles have been published summarizing many different aspects, including mycotoxin contamination per country or region. However, mycotoxin contamination in the Arab world, which includes 22 countries in Africa and Asia, has not yet been specifically reviewed. To this end, the contamination of mycotoxins in the Arab world was reviewed not only to profile the pervasiveness of the problem in this region but also to identify the main knowledge gaps imperiling the safety of food and feed in the future. To the best of our knowledge, 306 (non-)indexed publications in English, Arabic, or French were published from 1977 to 2021, focusing on the natural occurrence of mycotoxins in matrices of 14 different categories. Characteristic factors (e.g., detected mycotoxins, concentrations, and detection methods) were extracted, processed, and visualized. The main results are summarized as follows: (i) research on mycotoxin contamination has increased over the years. However, the accumulated data on their occurrences are scarce to non-existent in some countries; (ii) the state-of-the-art technologies on mycotoxin detection are not broadly implemented neither are contemporary multi-mycotoxin detection strategies, thus showing a need for capacity-building initiatives; and (iii) mycotoxin profiles differ among food and feed categories, as well as between human biofluids. Furthermore, the present work highlights contemporary legislation in the Arab countries and provides future perspectives to mitigate mycotoxins, enhance food and feed safety, and protect the consumer public. Concluding, research initiatives to boost mycotoxin research among Arab countries are strongly recommended.

Comprehensive review on patulin and Alternaria toxins in fruit and derived products

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by certain fungi, which can contaminate various food commodities, including fruits and their derived products. Patulin and Alternaria toxins are among the most commonly encountered mycotoxins in fruit and their derived products. In this review, the sources, toxicity, and regulations related to these mycotoxins, as well as their detection and mitigation strategies are widely discussed. Patulin is a mycotoxin produced mainly by the fungal genera Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Byssochlamys. Alternaria toxins, produced by fungi in the Alternaria genus, are another common group of mycotoxins found in fruits and fruit products. The most prevalent Alternaria toxins are alternariol (AOH) and alternariol monomethyl ether (AME). These mycotoxins are of concern due to their potential negative effects on human health. Ingesting fruits contaminated with these mycotoxins can cause acute and chronic health problems. Detection of patulin and Alternaria toxins in fruit and their derived products can be challenging due to their low concentrations and the complexity of the food matrices. Common analytical methods, good agricultural practices, and contamination monitoring of these mycotoxins are important for safe consumption of fruits and derived products. And Future research will continue to explore new methods for detecting and managing these mycotoxins, with the ultimate goal of ensuring the safety and quality of fruits and derived product supply.

Risk of low stability Saccharomyces cerevisiae ATCC 9763-heavy metals complex in gastrointestinal simulated conditions

The biosorption of heavy metals by microorganisms has attracted the interest of food researchers as the last approach to reduce the risk of their absorption in the human body. But the stability of yeast-metal complexes under simulated gastrointestinal conditions has not been investigated. In this study stability of complex as well as isotherm and kinetic models of biosorption have been studied. Also, the impact of some pretreatment on yeast biosorption was studied to check the possible impact of different environmental conditions in food processing. Data showed a risk of heavy metal release in simulated gastrointestinal conditions. The best biosorption of metals from aqueous solutions by Saccharomyces (S.) cerevisiae may be achieved after NaOH pretreatment for Mercury (Hg) 92.7%. While biosorption of Lead (Pb) 37.48%, Arsenic (As) 19.44%, and Cadmium (Cd) 39.9% by untreated yeast were better. In gastrointestinal conditions, Hg and Cd-yeast complexes were more stable and biosorption of Cd and Pb increased. Bonds of As and Hg-yeast complexes in digestion conditions were reversible. The metals biosorption by untreated yeast followed the pseudo-second-order kinetic and the Langmuir isotherm model for Hg, Pb, and Cd and Freundlich for As. Results showed that biosorption of heavy metals by S. cerevisiae, although may decrease metal bioavailability in fermented foods, the complex is not enough stable in gastrointestinal conditions.

•

Biodecontamination of heavy metals from multi-metallic aqueous solutions using Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

•

Stability assessment of metal-yeast complex after simulated gastrointestinal condition.

•

Usingpretreatment strategies to increase bioremoval efficiency and stability.

•

Indicating reversible bonds of heavy metal-yeast complexes.

•

The Langmuir isotherm model was the best-predicting biosorption model.

Contamination, Detection and Control of Mycotoxins in Fruits and Vegetables

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by pathogenic fungi that colonize fruits and vegetables either during harvesting or during storage. Mycotoxin contamination in fruits and vegetables has been a major problem worldwide, which poses a serious threat to human and animal health through the food chain. This review systematically describes the major mycotoxigenic fungi and the produced mycotoxins in fruits and vegetables, analyzes recent mycotoxin detection technologies including chromatography coupled with detector (i.e., mass, ultraviolet, fluorescence, etc.) technology, electrochemical biosensors technology and immunological techniques, as well as summarizes the degradation and detoxification technologies of mycotoxins in fruits and vegetables, including physical, chemical and biological methods. The future prospect is also proposed to provide an overview and suggestions for future mycotoxin research directions.

Effects of Pretreatments on Patulin Removal from Apple Juices Using Lactobacilli: Binding Stability in Simulated Gastrointestinal Condition and Modeling

Recently, researchers have reported the presence of patulin as a mycotoxin in commercial apple products, especially apple juices. The aim of this study was to assess adsorption of patulin from artificially contaminated apple juice using two lactic acid bacteria (LAB) strains of Lactobacillus acidophilus ATCC 4356 and Lactobacillus plantarum ATCC 8014. Furthermore, effects of five physical and chemical pretreatments on the patulin adsorption were investigated. Results demonstrated that patulin adsorption abilities of both strains increased with NaOH pretreatment but decreased after autoclaving. The NaOH-treated L. plantarum ATCC 8014 showed the best removal rate (59.74%) after 48 h of refrigerated storage, compared with the NaOH-treated L. acidophilus ATCC 4356 (52.36%). Moreover, stability of the LAB-patulin complex was assessed in simulated gastrointestinal tract conditions and a low quantity of patulin was released into the solution. The patulin adsorption process by NaOH-treated L. plantarum ATCC 8014 followed Freundlich isotherm model and pseudo-second-order kinetic model. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy showed that polysaccharide and protein components of the L. plantarum ATCC 8014 cell wall played key roles in patulin adsorption. The major functional groups of the cell wall that were involved in adsorbing patulin included -OH/-NH, -CH₂, C=O, and C-O groups. The current results suggest that NaOH-treated L. plantarum ATCC 8014 cells include the potential to detoxify patulin-contaminated apple juices.

Patulin in food: A mycotoxin concern for human health and its management strategies

The mycotoxin patulin is primarily produced as a secondary metabolite by numerous fungal species and predominantly by Aspergillus, Byssochlamys, and Penicillium species. It is generally associated with fungal infected food materials. Penicillium expansum is considered the only fungal species liable for patulin contamination in pome fruits, especially in apples and apple-based products. This toxin in food poses serious health concerns and economic threat, which has aroused the need to adopt effective detection and mitigation strategies. Understanding its origin sources and biosynthetic mechanism stands essential for efficiently designing a management strategy against this fungal contamination. This review aims to present an updated outline of the sources of patulin occurrence in different foods and their biosynthetic mechanisms. It further provides information regarding the detrimental effects of patulin on human and agriculture as well as its effective detection, management, and control strategies.

Mycotoxin-contaminated food and feed in Saudi Arabia: review of occurrence and toxicity

Introduction. Mycotoxins are reported to have a considerable impact on the health of consumers. There has been plentiful research into the effects of mycotoxins, fungi, and bacteria on the safety and quality of food and feed. This research paper reviews the literature on mycotoxins. Study objects and methods. The study focused on mycotoxins in food and feed produced in Saudi Arabia. We reviewed literature on the occurrence and health impacts of foodborne mycotoxins. We also studied the presence of mycotoxins in herbs, nuts, cereals, dried fruits and vegetables, infant formulas and baby foods, as well as dairy products. Finally, the paper offers a review of mycotoxin analysis methods. Results and discussion. The findings showed that mycotoxins attract a lot of scientific interest in Saudi Arabia. Certain types of mycotoxins (zearalenone, aflatoxins) and fungi (Aspergillus flavus, Penicillium chrysogenum, and Aspergillus niger) were common in the samples (isolates) of products tested in the Saudi regions. Furthermore, the researchers used different techniques of analysis such as the HPLC method, dilution plate method, thin layer chromatography, total plate count method, and seed-plate method to detect, identify, and isolate mycotoxins. Conclusion. Most importantly, the results showed that mycotoxins have serious health impacts on consumers and most of the contamination cases are caused by improper storage conditions and/or inappropriate handling and harvesting practices.

A reliable and accurate UHPLC-MS/MS method for screening of Aspergillus, Penicillium and Alternaria mycotoxins in orange, grape and apple juices

An ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) method was developed for simultaneous determination of 15 mycotoxins, including aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1, and G2), ochratoxins (A, B, and C), citrinin, patulin, and emerging Alternaria toxins (alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, altenuene, tentoxin, tenuazonic acid, and altenusin) in orange, grape and apple juices. Different extraction approaches, sorbents, chromatographic columns and mobile phases were investigated for establishment of an optimal QuEChERS procedure and UHPLC-MS/MS conditions. Recoveries were in the range of 74-110%, and the limits of detection (LODs) and limits of quantification (LOQs) ranged from 0.05 to 0.1 ng mL-1 and from 0.1 to 5.0 ng mL-1, respectively. Matrix effects were evaluated and matrix-matched calibration curves were used to compensate for matrix effects and achieve accurate quantification. The correlation coefficients (R2) of linearity were higher than 0.99 and the relative standard deviations (RSDs) of intra- and inter-day precision were under 13%. The method was subsequently applied to 22 fruit juice samples. The high frequencies (90.9%) of mycotoxins not only proved the reliability and sensitivity of the currently established method, but also demonstrated that fruit juices are susceptible to different mycotoxins, which need to be continuously monitored in the future.

Surveillance of Patulin in Apple, Grapes, Juices and Value-Added Products for Sale in Pakistan

The prime objective of the current study was to investigate the occurrence of mycotoxin patulin (PAT) in apples, grapes and their value added products. PAT was determined by a validated method based on HPLC with UV detector. A total of 381 samples comprising apple and grape fruits (n = 133 each), apple-based products (n = 76, juice, puree, jam) and grape juice (n = 39) were analyzed. PAT was found in 58.9% samples of apple and apple-based products, with a mean of 49.8 µg/kg (maximum 396 µg/kg), while 27.3% samples contained PAT beyond the maximum regulatory limit of 50 µg/kg. The average levels of PAT contamination in apple-derived products was higher in apple juice concentrate, followed by apple puree, apple juice and apple jam. The incidence of PAT in table grapes was 65.1%, with a mean of 53.9 µg/kg (maximum 505 µg/kg), whereas 23.8% exceeded the maximum level. Among the fruit samples, there were differences in PAT contents due to apple variety (6 types) or grape variety (8 types), as well as for sampling location. Our investigations showed the wide PAT occurrence in fruits and derived value-added products affecting consumer product safety, so that the population is chronically exposed to this toxin.

Fungal and plant metabolites in industrially-processed fruit juices in Nigeria

There is scarce data on the mycotoxin profile in retailed fruit juices in Nigeria. Thirty-five industrially-processed fruit juice samples randomly purchased from retailers in Ogun state, Nigeria, were analysed for the presence of > 650 toxic fungal and plant metabolites using a liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometric method. Only 18 metabolites, including 3-nitropropionic acid, alternariol methylether and emodin, but excluding citrinin, fumonisin B₂, ochratoxin A and patulin, were detected in trace levels in at least one juice sample. Amygdalin, a plant cyanogen, was quantified (2.05-359 µg/L) in 40% of the samples. Although the levels of mycotoxins and toxic plant metabolites found in the juice may be relatively low, daily consumption of juices containing such low levels may contribute to dietary exposures to these natural chemical contaminants in consumers. Fruit juice processors should be encouraged to adhere strictly to good manufacturing practices in order to keep mycotoxins away from the final products.

Patulin Mycotoxin in Mango and Orange Fruits, Juices, Pulps, and Jams Marketed in Pakistan

The objective of the study was to explore the incidence of patulin (PAT) mycotoxin in mango and orange fruits and derived products marketed in Pakistan. A total of 274 samples, including 70 mango fruits, 63 mango-based products (juices, pulp, and jam), 77 orange fruits, and 64 orange-based products, were collected. PAT was determined by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with UV-Vis detector (276 nm). Linear detector response was observed (R2 > 0.99), the limit of detection (LOD) was 5 µg/kg and recovery percentage was 97.4%. The incidence of PAT in mango samples was 61.7%, and the concentration ranged from Collapse

Key Words

• food safety
• fruit-derived products
• mango
• orange
• patulin
• regulatory limits

Collapse

MESH Headings

• Beverages
• Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid
• Citrus sinensis
• Food Contamination
• Food Microbiology
• Fruit/microbiology
• Malus
• Mangifera/microbiology
• Pakistan
• Patulin/analysis
• Patulin/toxicity

Collapse

Grants Collapse

Affiliation(s)

Shabbir Hussain Food Toxicology Laboratory, Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology College (NIAB-C), Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS), Jhang Road, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan; (S.H.); (N.K.); (S.W.-u.-H.) Central Analytical Facility Division, Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology (PINSTECH), P. O. Nilore, Islamabad 45650, Pakistan
Muhammad Rafique Asi Food Toxicology Laboratory, Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology College (NIAB-C), Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS), Jhang Road, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan; (S.H.); (N.K.); (S.W.-u.-H.)
Mazhar Iqbal Health Biotechnology Division, National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering College (NIBGE-C), Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS), Jhang Road, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan
Nisha Khalid Food Toxicology Laboratory, Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology College (NIAB-C), Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS), Jhang Road, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan; (S.H.); (N.K.); (S.W.-u.-H.)
Syed Wajih-ul-Hassan Food Toxicology Laboratory, Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology College (NIAB-C), Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS), Jhang Road, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan; (S.H.); (N.K.); (S.W.-u.-H.)
Agustín Ariño Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón—IA2 (Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA), Facultad de Veterinaria, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain;

Collapse

Immunoliposome-based fluorometric patulin assay by using immunomagnetic nanoparticles

A fluorometric immunoassay is described for the determination of patulin, a highly toxic fungal metabolite. A rabbit anti-patulin-bovine serum albumin (BSA) IgG conjugate was prepared and used to compose immunoliposomes and immunomagnetic nanoparticles. The immunomagnetic nanoparticles are then added to the sample to form the patulin-antibody composites which can be magnetically separated. The immunoliposomes are then added to form a sandwich. After magnetic separation of the composites and adding n-octyl-β-D-glucopyranoside, the fluorophore sulforhodamine B (SRB) is released. Its fluorescence intensity was then measured at excitation/emission wavelengths of 550/585 nm. The immunoliposome-based immunomagnetic nanoparticle assay can detect 8 μg L⁻¹ of patulin in apple juice without the need for extraction, separation, and purification. The detection limit falls within the European regulatory limit for infants and children’s products (10 μg L⁻¹). The method is rapid, enviroment-friendly, and reliable.

Graphical abstract

Mycotoxin contamination of food and feed in the Gulf Cooperation Council countries and its detection

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by different fungal spices and are found in diverse agricultural crops worldwide; they pose a severe threat to public health. Mycotoxins can cause either acute or chronic symptoms, depending on the type and dose of mycotoxin one has been exposed to. Thus, a continuous monitoring of mycotoxins is needed. Since the discovery of mycotoxins, numerous countries, including the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, have established mycotoxin-specific regulations for feed and food. Although a number of studies in GCC countries have investigated the presence of mycotoxins, till date, there are no reviews focusing on the mycotoxin contamination of the food and feed from this region. This review is the first study to present an up-to-date overview of the occurrence of mycotoxins in feed and food in the GCC countries and to discuss the techniques used for mycotoxin analysis.

Probiotic microorganisms detoxify ochratoxin A in both a chicken liver cell line and chickens

BACKGROUND

The administration of probiotics and prebiotics (synbiotics) is a promising method for detoxification of ochratoxin A (OTA) in animals. The aim of this study was to investigate the ability of five probiotic strains of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and one Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast strain, from three different synbiotics for poultry, to detoxify OTA. In addition, we also investigated the genotoxicity of faecal water (FW) of chickens after administering OTA and/or synbiotics for 42 days.

RESULTS

All tested LAB and yeast strains had the ability to detoxify OTA by significant (P < 0.05) reducing its concentration (by 31.3-47.7% and 31.9%, respectively, after 24 h incubation) and genotoxicity (by 22.6-51.8% and 52.7%, respectively). Synbiotics composed of four and five probiotic strains significantly (P < 0.05) decreased FW genotoxicity of chicks, after exposure to OTA, to the level seen in the control group (21.8% ± 1.7%) and were more effective than synbiotics composed of three probiotic strains (31.5%).

CONCLUSION

These results showed that there was a beneficial effect of the synbiotics on the gastrointestinal tract of animals. Furthermore, synbiotic preparations containing four or five of tested strains can be considered as preventive agents in the contamination of poultry with OTA. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Degrading Ochratoxin A and Zearalenone Mycotoxins Using a Multifunctional Recombinant Enzyme

Zearalenone (ZEA) is an estrogenic and ochratoxin A (OTA) is a hepatotoxic Fusarium mycotoxin commonly seen in cereals and fruits products. No previous investigation has studied on a single platform for the multi degradation mycotoxin. The current study aimed to investigate the bifunctional activity of a novel fusion recombinant. We have generated a recombinant fusion enzyme (ZHDCP) by combining two single genes named zearalenone hydrolase (ZHD) and carboxypeptidase (CP) in frame deletion by crossover polymerase chain reaction (PCR). We identified enzymatic properties and cell cytotoxicity assay of ZHDCP enzyme. Our findings have demonstrated that ZEA was completely degraded to the non-toxic product in 2 h by ZHDCP enzyme at an optimum pH of 7 and a temperature of 35 °C. For the first time, it was found out that ZEA 60% was degraded by CP degrades in 48 h. Fusion ZHDCP and CP enzyme were able to degrade 100% OTA in 30 min at pH 7 and temperature 30 °C. ZEA- and OTA-induced cell death and increased cell apoptosis rate and regulated mRNA expression of Sirt1, Bax, Bcl2, Caspase3, TNFα, and IL6 genes. Our novel findings demonstrated that the fusion enzyme ZHDCP possess bifunctional activity (degrade OTA and ZEA), and it could be used to degrade more mycotoxins.

Rapid and Simple Detection of Ochratoxin A using Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer on Lateral Flow Immunoassay (FRET-LFI)

The detection of mycotoxins is crucial because of their toxicity in plants, animals, and humans. It is very important to determine whether food products are contaminated with mycotoxins such as ochratoxin A (OTA), as mycotoxins can survive heat treatments and hydrolysis. In this study, we designed a fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based system that exploits antibody-antigen binding to detect mycotoxins more rapidly and easily than other currently available methods. In addition, we were able to effectively counteract the matrix effect in the sample by using a nitrocellulose membrane that enabled fluorescence measurement in coffee samples. The developed FRET on lateral flow immunoassay (FRET-LFI) system was used to detect OTA at a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.64 ng∙mL-1, and the test can be completed in only 30 min. Moreover, OTA in coffee samples was successfully detected at a LOD of 0.88 ng∙mL-1, overcoming the matrix effect, owing to the chromatographic properties of the capillary force of the membrane. We believe that the developed system can be used as a powerful tool for the sensitive diagnosis of harmful substances such as mycotoxins and pesticides for environmental and food quality control monitoring.

Mycotoxin patulin in food matrices: occurrence and its biological degradation strategies

Patulin is a mycotoxin produced by a number of filamentous fungal species. It is a polyketide secondary metabolite which can gravely cause human health problems and food safety issues. This review deals with the occurrence of patulin in major food commodities from 2008 to date, including historical aspects, source, occurrence, regulatory limits and its toxicity. Most importantly, an overview of the recent research progress about the biodegradation strategies for contaminated food matrices is provided. The physical and chemical approaches have some drawbacks such as safety issues, possible losses in the nutritional quality, chemical hazards, limited efficacy, and high cost. The biological decontamination based on elimination or degradation of patulin using yeast, bacteria, and fungi has shown good results and it seems to be attractive since it works under mild and environment-friendly conditions. Further studies are needed to make clear the detoxification pathways by available potential biosorbents and to determine the practical applications of these methods at a commercial level to remove patulin from food products with special reference to their effects on sensory characteristics of foods.

Patulin removal from synbiotic apple juice using Lactobacillus plantarum ATCC 8014

AIMS

The aim of this study was to evaluate the elimination of patulin (PAT) by Lactobacillus plantarum ATCC 8014 from artificially contaminated apple juice and its dependence on prebiotic, citric acid and ascorbic acid content.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A central composite design was used for studying each of the three factors at five levels to find the optimum concentrations. The results showed that inserting 2·3% (w/v) fructooligosaccharide, 213 mg l^-1 ascorbic acid and 1·4 g l^-1 citric acid to apple juice with inoculating 3·6 × 10¹¹ CFU per ml, L. plantarum improved the efficiency of PAT removal to 95·91% during 6 weeks cold storage. SDS-PAGE of cell surface proteins of probiotics revealed that surface layer proteins have an important role in PAT removal from apple juice. No significant difference was observed in the flavour and colour of the optimized synbiotic apple juice and in the control sample until 3 weeks of cold storage.

CONCLUSION

Lactobacillus plantarum ATCC 8014 is capable of PAT removal from artificially contaminated synbiotic apple juice.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

Synbiotic apple juice artificially contaminated with PAT will be safe for consumers after the first day of probiotic inoculation; and surface layer proteins of probiotic cells are responsible for PAT removal.

Determination of Ochratoxin A contamination in grapes, processed grape products and animal-derived products using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectroscopy system

We developed a sensitive and rapid analytical method to determine the level of Ochratoxin A contamination in grapes, processed grape products and in foods of animal origin (a total of 11 different food matrices). A pretreatment that followed a "quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe" protocol was optimized to extract Ochratoxin A from the matrices, and the extracted Ochratoxin A was then detected with the use of a highly sensitive ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry system. Good linearities of Ochratoxin A were obtained in the range of 0.1-500 µg L-1 (correlation coefficient (R2) > 0.9994 in each case). Mean recovery from the 11 matrices ranged from 70.3 to 114.7%, with a relative standard deviation ≤19.2%. The method is easy to use and yields reliable results for routine determination of Ochratoxin A in food products of grape and animal origin. In store-purchased foods and foods obtained from the field and wholesale suppliers, the Ochratoxin A concentration ranged from undetectable to 10.14 µg kg-1, with the more contaminated samples being mainly those of processed grape products. Our results indicate that the necessity for regulation of and supervision during the processing of grape products.

Effect of probiotics on patulin removal from synbiotic apple juice

BACKGROUND

Studies have reported the occurrence of the mycotoxin patulin in apple products. The aim of this study was to produce synbiotic apple juice and investigate the detoxification of patulin by Lactobacillus acidophilus and Lactobacillus plantarum as probiotic strains. The impact of seven process variables on efficiency of toxin removal was investigated using Plackett-Burman design and presence of the surface-layer proteins as binding site of probiotics to patulin was confirmed during 6 weeks of cold storage.

RESULTS

Results showed that the removal of patulin by probiotic bacteria from apple juice depends significantly (P < 0.05) on the fructooligosaccharide content (as a prebiotic), concentration of patulin and the addition of ascorbic acid. Sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of cell surface proteins of probiotic strains revealed that surface layer proteins have an important role in patulin removal from apple juice. In the best conditions, 91.23% of initial patulin concentration was removed from juice during 6 weeks refrigerated storage. No significant difference was observed in organoleptic properties of the synbiotic apple juice and raw sample.

CONCLUSION

In the best condition reported in this study, contaminated synbiotic apple juice by patulin will be safe for consumers after the first day of probiotic inoculation. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

Incidence of Mycotoxins in Local and Branded Samples of Chocolates Marketed in Pakistan

The present overview was intended to evaluate the degree of total aflatoxins and ochratoxin A contamination in different samples of bitter, dark, milk, and white chocolates marketed in Pakistan. For that exploration, two hundred (n=200) samples of chocolates, 100 branded and 100 local, were analyzed for mycotoxins profile by HPLC-FLD. The outcomes firmly sustained that the majority of the samples were contaminated with aflatoxins and ochratoxin A. The incidence of total aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in branded samples was 83% and 90%, whereas the local samples showed 91% and 97% contamination, respectively. The highest amount of total aflatoxins was found in branded dark chocolates, that is, 2.27 μg/kg, and maximum ochratoxin A level was detected white chocolates (2.06 μg/kg). On average, the local white chocolates and dark chocolates faced the highest level of total aflatoxins (3.35 μg/kg) and ochratoxin A (3.48 μg/kg), respectively. The local samples of chocolates were more contaminated with mycotoxins as compared to branded ones accredited to the lack of quality control and quality assurance during the manufacturing as well as packing processes. In recent years, consumption of chocolate is rapidly increasing especially by young generation, so monitoring of mycotoxin occurrence in them is a matter of great concern and more studies are required to comprehend the production of mycotoxins in these products.

Determination of Mycotoxins in Brown Rice Using QuEChERS Sample Preparation and UHPLC-MS-MS

QuEChERS sample preparation was optimized and validated using solvent extraction with 10% (v/v) acetic acid-containing acetonitrile in the presence of four salts (anh. MgSO4, NaCl, sodium citrate tribasic dihydrate and sodium citrate dibasic sesquihydrate) and dispersive solid-phase extraction with mixed sorbents (octadecylsilane, primary and secondary amine and silica sorbents) for an ultra high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric determination of nine mycotoxins in brown rice: aflatoxins (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2), fumonisins (FB1 and FB2), deoxynivalenol, ochratoxin A and zearalenone (ZON). Our developed method allows for the determination of trace levels of mycotoxins with method detection limits in the range of 1.4-25 µg/kg, below the maximum limits of EU regulations, and with an acceptable accuracy and precision, and recoveries in the range of 81-101% with relative standard deviations of 5-19% over a mycotoxin concentration range of 5.0-1,000 µg/kg. Six out of fourteen real samples of brown rice were found to be contaminated with at least one of these mycotoxins, ranging from 2.49-5.41 µg/kg of FB1, 4.33 ± 0.04 µg/kg of FB2 and 6.10-14.88 µg/kg of ZON.

Development of a real-time PCR assay for Penicillium expansum quantification and patulin estimation in apples

Due to the occurrence and spread of the fungal contaminants in food and the difficulties to remove their resulting mycotoxins, rapid and accurate methods are needed for early detection of these mycotoxigenic fungi. The polymerase chain reaction and the real time PCR have been widely used for this purpose. Apples are suitable substrates for fungal colonization mostly caused by Penicillium expansum, which produces the mycotoxin patulin during fruit infection. This study describes the development of a real-time PCR assay incorporating an internal amplification control (IAC) to specifically detect and quantify P. expansum. A specific primer pair was designed from the patF gene, involved in patulin biosynthesis. The selected primer set showed a high specificity for P. expansum and was successfully employed in a standardized real-time PCR for the direct quantification of this fungus in apples. Using the developed system, twenty eight apples were analyzed for their DNA content. Apples were also analyzed for patulin content by HPLC. Interestingly, a positive correlation (R(2) = 0.701) was found between P. expansum DNA content and patulin concentration. This work offers an alternative to conventional methods of patulin quantification and mycological detection of P. expansum and could be very useful for the screening of patulin in fruits through the application of industrial quality control.

Natural occurrence, analysis, and prevention of mycotoxins in fruits and their processed products

Mycotoxins are small toxic chemical products formed as the secondary metabolites by fungi that readily contaminate foods with toxins in the field or after harvest. The presence of mycotoxins, such as aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, and patulin, in fruits and their processed products is of high concern for human health due to their properties to induce severe acute and chronic toxicity at low-dose levels. Currently, a broad range of detection techniques used for practical analysis and detection of a wide spectrum of mycotoxins are available. Many analytical methods have been developed for the determination of each group of these mycotoxins in different food matrices, but new methods are still required to achieve higher sensitivity and address other challenges that are posed by these mycotoxins. Effective technologies are needed to reduce or even eliminate the presence of the mycotoxins in fruits and their processed products. Preventive measures aimed at the inhibition of mycotoxin formation in fruits and their processed products are the most effective approach. Detoxification of mycotoxins by different physical, chemical, and biological methods are less effective and sometimes restricted because of concerns of safety, possible losses in nutritional quality of the treated commodities and cost implications. This article reviewed the available information on the major mycotoxins found in foods and feeds, with an emphasis of fruits and their processed products, and the analytical methods used for their determination. Based on the current knowledge, the major strategies to prevent or even eliminate the presence of the mycotoxins in fruits and their processed products were proposed.

Patulin in apple juice and its risk assessments on albino mice

The contamination of apple juice with patulin mycotoxin is a major risk factor in food safety. This study focuses to assess the biochemical and histopathological effects of patulin in apple juice samples collected from different outlets retailing in Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. On the basis of the selected dose level, 152.5 ppb patulin/ml was administered daily orally for up to 6 weeks to male albino mice. The exposure to contaminated samples revealed significant elevation of all the studied blood parameters (alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase and alkaline phosphatase activities as well as creatinine, urea and uric acid contents). On the other hand, and with regard to the accumulated neuronal toxicity of the tested dose level, the toxic signs were recorded as significant increase in the aggressive and locomotor behavioral changes. In addition, the brain areas monoamines concentration revealed variable increased changes. The potential maximal changes in norepinephrine, dopamine and serotonin5-hydroxytryptamine levels attained in cortex, hypothalamus, striatum, hippocampus, midbrain and pons and medulla were assessed. Moreover, the histological examination revealed degeneration and necrosis in liver tissues and degenerated glomeruli and hemorrhage between the tubules of the cortical region in kidney tissues. The study declared that patulin-contaminated (152.5 ppb) apple juice exhibited liver, kidney and neurotoxicological effects in 6 weeks orally administered mice.

Development of a multiplex real-time PCR to quantify aflatoxin, ochratoxin A and patulin producing molds in foods

A multiplex real-time PCR (qPCR) method to quantify aflatoxin, ochratoxin A (OTA) and patulin producing molds in foods was developed. For this, the primer pairs F/R-omt, F/R-npstr and F/R-idhtrb and the TaqMan probes, OMTprobe, NPSprobe and IDHprobe targeting the omt-1, otanpsPN and idh genes involved in aflatoxin, OTA and patulin biosynthesis, respectively, were used. The functionality of the developed qPCR method was demonstrated by the high linear relationship of the standard curves constructed with the omt-1, otanpsPN and idh gene copies and threshold cycle (Ct) values for the respective producing molds tested to quantify aflatoxin, OTA and patulin producing molds. The ability of the optimized qPCR protocol to quantify producing molds was evaluated in different artificially inoculated foods (fruits, nuts, cereals and dry-ripened meat and cheese products). Efficiency values ranged from 81 to 110% in all inoculated foods. The detection limit was between 3 and 1logcfu/g for aflatoxin, OTA and patulin producing molds. The developed multiplex qPCR was shown be an appropriate tool for sensitive quantification of growth of toxigenic fungi in foods throughout the incubation time. Thus, the multiplex qPCR is a useful, rapid and efficient method to quantify simultaneously aflatoxin, OTA and patulin producing molds in food products.

Determination of Ochratoxin A in apples contaminated with Aspergillus ochraceus by using a microfluidic competitive immunosensor with magnetic nanoparticles

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin produced by filamentous fungi of the genus Aspergillus and Penicillium that presents carcinogenic, teratogenic and nephrotoxic properties. In this work, we have developed, characterized and applied an immunoassay methodology comprised of magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) as platform for immobilizing bioactive materials incorporated into a microfluidic system for rapid and sensitive quantification of Ochratoxin A (OTA) in apples (Red Delicious) contaminated with Aspergillus ochraceus. The sensor has the potential for automation and the detection of OTA was carried out using a competitive indirect immunoassay method based on the use of anti-OTA monoclonal antibodies immobilized on 3-aminopropyl-modified MNPs. The total assay time into the microfluidic competitive immunosensor was 16 min, and the calculated detection limit was 0.05 µg kg(-1). Moreover, the intra- and inter-assay coefficients of variation were below 6.5%. The proposed method can be a very promising analytical tool for the determination of OTA in apparently healthy fruits post-harvest and for its application in the agricultural industry.