Assessment of farmers on their knowledge regarding pesticide usage and biosafety

The role of market in motivating farmers to reduce pesticide use: Evidence from vegetable farms in Shiraz

The overuse of pesticides has harmful impacts on both the environment and human health. Implementing efficient techniques is crucial to manage pesticides and reduce negative impacts effectively. In order to achieve this objective, we evaluated the harm of pesticide application in vegetable fields in Shiraz and identified the factors that impact farmers' behavior in using pesticides. The Environmental Impact Quotient (EIQ) indicator was initially utilized to evaluate the effects of pesticide residues on both human health and the environment. Afterwards, the Logit model was employed to investigate the likelihood of excessive pesticide usage among farmers. Our findings suggest that farmers may not give high importance to environmental and human health considerations when deciding on pesticide usage. Market incentives, such as the quantity and price of vegetables produced without pesticide use, play a significant role in reducing pesticide use in Shiraz vegetable farms. The results of the study can help policy makers in implementing pesticide-free agricultural practices.

Sustainable approach for the expulsion of metaldehyde: risk, interactions, and mitigation: a review

All pests can be eliminated with the help of pesticides, which can be either natural or synthetic. Because of the excessive use of pesticides, it is harmful to both ecology and people's health. Pesticides are categorised according to several criteria: their chemical composition, method of action, effects, timing of use, source of manufacture, and formulations. Many aquatic animals, birds, and critters live in danger owing to hazardous pesticides. Metaldehyde is available in various forms and causes significant impact even when small amounts are ingested. Metaldehyde can harm wildlife, including dogs, cats, and birds. This review discusses pesticides, their types and potential environmental issues, and metaldehyde's long-term effects. In addition, it examines ways to eliminate metaldehyde from the aquatic ecosystem before concluding by anticipating how pesticides may affect society. The metal-organic framework and other biosorbents have been appropriately synthesized and subsequently represent the amazing removal of pesticides from effluent as an enhanced adsorbent, such as magnetic nano adsorbents. A revision of the risk assessment for metaldehyde residuals in aqueous sources is also attempted.

Possible Risk Factors and Their Potential Associations with Combined Heavy Metal Exposures in Pregnant Women in the Republic of Suriname

Background

The exposure of pregnant women to multiple environmental pollutants may be more disadvantageous to birth outcomes when compared to single-compound contaminations.

Objective

This study investigated the mixed exposures to mercury, manganese, or lead in 380 pregnant Surinamese women. The factors that might be associated with the heavy metal exposures and the relative risk of the potential factors to cause the mixed exposures were explored. The influencing factors of exposures to mixed contaminants assessed were living in Suriname's rural regions, several parts of which are contaminated with heavy metals emitted from artisanal and small-scale gold mining and agricultural activities; the consumption of potentially contaminated foods; advanced maternal age; as well as a relatively low formal educational level and monthly household income.

Methods

Descriptive statistics were used to calculate frequency distributions and χ2-contingency analyses to calculate associations and relative risks (RR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI).

Findings

Blood levels of two or three of the heavy metals above public health limits were observed in 36% of the women. These women were more often residing in the rural regions, primarily consumed potentially contaminated food items, were 35 years or older, were lower educated, and more often had a lower household income. However, only living in the rural regions (RR = 1.48; 95% CI 1.23-1.77) and a low household income (RR = 1.38; 95% CI 1.15-1.66) significantly increased the risk of exposure exceeding levels of concern to two or three of the heavy metals (by 48% and 38%, respectively).

Conclusion

More comprehensive pharmacological, ecological, and epidemiological studies about exposures to mixed heavy metal contaminations in pregnant women are warranted.

Decision support model to assess pesticide safeness toward environment

For farmers around the world to protect crops from disturbing pests, it is common to use pesticides to ward off the growth of pests or even eliminate them. Even though pesticides are seen as a good thing for protecting crops, there is one thing that mustn't be forgotten the origin of the pesticide itself is a toxin compound that is dangerous if used irresponsibly. The main concern of this study is excessive use of pesticides may cause serious consequences to the ecosystem and environment through the accumulation of pesticide residue by irresponsible farmers. To minimize the effects of pesticide residues, the selection of the type of pesticide needs to be considered which type may not be harmful to the environment's health even though accumulation happens. Therefore, in this study, a fuzzy-based computational model assessor was built to measure the safety level of pesticides toward the environment. The fuzzy model was created with consideration of several parameters related to pesticide behaviors, its effects on beneficial organisms, and its persistence in the environment. The method used for this study includes literature reviewing, fuzzification, statistical approach, expert knowledge sharing, and quantitative analysis. The model created in this study can assist in a more accurate and realistic method of selecting better pesticide options that will be used by farmers. To ensure the validity of the model, verifying and validating the formula and pesticide result assessment were done with related literature articles. In this study, from 10 types of pesticides used as a sample, dodine, and iprodione pesticides are the best option for protecting crops with a safety level of 7.36, and abamectin, dimethoate, chorpyrifos, and methidathion are not safe options for farming use because of its potential of harming the environment.

Smallholder farmers' knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) regarding agricultural inputs with a focus on agricultural biologicals

There is a general drive to reduce pesticide use owing to the potential negative effects of pesticides on the environment and human health. The EU Commission, for example, through its "Farm to Fork Strategy," has proposed to decrease the use of hazardous chemical pesticides by 50% by 2030. In addition, smallholder farmers in low-income countries do not always follow pesticide safety precautions. This necessitates the introduction of low-risk crop protection strategies also suited for these farmers. Agricultural biologicals can substitute for, or at least partially replace hazardous chemical pesticides. While the market for and use of biologicals is growing quickly in industrialized countries, this practice remains limited in sub-Saharan Africa. To understand the reason behind the low adoption of biologicals, this study examined the knowledge, attitudes, and practices toward biologicals among 150 smallholder farmers in the Chole district in Ethiopia. All farmers used chemical pesticides and/or inorganic fertilizers to protect crops, improve yields, and comply with government regulations. The use of biologicals was, however, restricted to one group of biologicals, bio-fertilizers, which approximately 60% of farmers used, and no use of biologicals for plant protection was reported. Even though the understanding of the concept of biologicals was deemed high among respondents, the majority (90%) did not identify biologicals as safer alternatives to conventional agricultural inputs. More than half of the respondents (54%) did not recommend biologicals as safer alternatives to their colleagues. Nevertheless, even if the responding farmers did not perceive biologicals as risk-free, they had a positive attitude towards biologicals when it came to producing healthy food and increasing crop yields and incomes. In comparison to the positive attitude, farmers' knowledge and practice of biologicals were generally low; thus, efforts are needed to create awareness among farmers.

The determinants of thyroid function among vegetable farmers with primary exposure to chlorpyrifos: A cross-sectional study in Central Java, Indonesia

Objectives

Occupational pesticide exposure, chlorpyrifos (CPF) in particular, may adversely affect the thyroid. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the determinants of thyroid function as indicated by the serum concentration of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) among Indonesian vegetable farmers with primary exposure to CPF.

Methods

A total of 151 vegetable farmers participated in this study. The sociodemographic and occupational characteristics of the participants were obtained using a structured interviewer-administered questionnaire. A validated quantitative method was used to estimate the cumulative exposure level (CEL). Serum TSH, thyroglobulin (Tg), free thyroxine (FT4), and urinary iodine excretion (UIE) were measured in the laboratory. The difference in TSH concentrations according to CEL and other characteristics were analysed using the Mann-Whitney U test. A multiple linear regression model was used to evaluate the potential determinants of TSH.

Results

The mean age was 50 (SD 9.4) years. The median concentrations of TSH, FT4, and Tg/FT4 ratio were 1.46 mIU/L, 1.17 ng/dL, and 6.23 × 10², respectively. We observed that higher TSH concentrations were found among those with a higher Tg/FT4 ratio, were classified as high CEL, and had lower UIE or FT4.

Conclusions

Our findings show that Tg/FT4 ratio, CEL, FT4, UIE concentrations, and post-spraying days were determinants of TSH concentrations among farmers with primary exposure to CPF. These results indicate that farmers are exposed to agents with thyroid-disrupting properties, thus supporting previous evidence showing the potential for thyroid disorders in agricultural populations exposed to pesticides.

Human exposure to pesticides and thyroid cancer: a worldwide systematic review of the literatures

Thyroid cancer is considered as one of the most prevalent cancers in the world. Some pesticides can play a role as a potentially important risk factor in thyroid cancer by affecting thyroid morphology and thyroid hormone homeostasis. The aim of present study was to systematically review the available epidemiological evidence for human exposure to pesticides and thyroid cancer. Articles were searched in PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science by suitable keywords from January 2000 to May 2021. Standard techniques for systematic reviews were followed in the current study and results reported according to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria, finally seven studies including four cohort studies and three case-control studies were reviewed. Organochlorines (OCPs) in more cases, Organophosphates (OPs) and Carbamates insecticides, herbicides and fungicides were the studied pesticides. Inconsistent results were reported in the surveyed articles on the OCPs. Two articles on the Carbamates (Carbaryl and Mancozeb) showed consistently an inverse association between exposure and thyroid cancer. Increased risk of thyroid cancer due to the exposure to the Malathion was reported in one article on the OPs. Due to the limited current knowledge about the effect of pesticides on thyroid cancer in humans, human health policies must be implemented to control individual's exposure to chemicals through using of botanical pesticides in agricultural. Also, more studies must be done to fill this gap of knowledge.

Exploring consumers' environmental ethical preferences in the context of unmanned aerial vehicle utilization for plant protection

The use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) has increased agricultural productivity, achieved food security, and eased the pressure associated with environmental degradation and population growth. However, consumer sentiment remains unclear. The results show that pressures regarding food safety, production safety, and ecological safety have different degrees of positive impact on perceived benefits but no significant impact on perceived barriers. They strongly influence both perceived benefits to the adoption of UAV plant protection agricultural products. Perceived benefits demonstrated a mediating role between the three safety pressures and the adoption of UAVs. Lay beliefs showed a positive moderating effect on perceived benefits and obstacles to the adoption of UAV-based plant protection products. Based on these findings, this paper concludes that consumers are developing new consumer ethics that integrate concepts of food safety, safe production, and regional environmental protection with their acceptance of new technology, which is directly dependent on the combined effect of environmental and consumer ethics. To promote sustainable development, policies must be further optimized on this original basis.

Assessing the availability of trusted health information in a rural Appalachia community using social network analysis

The purpose of this study was to investigate how trusted health information is transmitted within a rural Appalachian community. Egocentric social network methods were used to identify and characterize influential community members ("alters") that participants ("egos") go to for trusted health advice. Friends and "other health professionals" were named most frequently as health advice alters, and health advice was described as frequent and helpful. Participants could count on their health advice network for multiple forms of social support. Understanding trusted sources of health advice will allow us to identify community members to serve as change agents for rural T2DM interventions.

Agricultural pesticide use and misuse: A study to assess the cognizance and practices among North Indian farmers

Introduction

Farmers' cognizance regarding pesticide use and overuse is limited and their practices for handling of pesticides is unsatisfactory. However, their perception concerning risks and safety of pesticides play a very important role in safe spraying and indirectly protect them from adverse health hazards.

Objective

To assess the cognizance about use and risks of overuse of pesticides and evaluate practices for the storage, preparation, and disposal of pesticides.

Material and Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted among 387 farmers of Lucknow who fulfilled the inclusion criteria. A multistage random sampling was done to interview the farmers. A pretested structured questionnaire was to collect the information regarding the cognizance about use and risks of overuse of pesticides and evaluate practices for the storage, preparation, and disposal of pesticides.

Results

More than half (55%) of the farmers did not read and follow the pesticide label. Maximum (80.2%) were unaware that pesticides are banned or restricted for use. Thirty-seven percent did not know that some pesticides may cause lethal intoxications. Majority of the farmers (42.6%) stored the pesticides anywhere in the house. More than two-thirds of the farmers (69.7%) mixed only needed pesticides followed by a low percentage of them applying on other crops (15.8%) and dispose in the field (11.7%).

Conclusion

The study concludes that cognizance and practices of the farmers for pesticide use and risks associated with it was not satisfactory and exposes them to adverse health outcomes.

Effects of Market Incentives and Livelihood Dependence on Farmers' Multi-Stage Pesticide Application Behavior-A Case Study of Four Provinces in China

Improvement in pesticide application and efficiency structure has long been recognized as having great significance in reducing pollution, ensuring food safety, and promoting green agricultural development. Based on theoretical analysis, using the survey data of 766 farmers in key tea areas in Shaanxi, Sichuan, Zhejiang, and Anhui provinces in China, the study empirically analyzes the influence of market incentives and livelihood dependence on farmers' multi-stage pesticide application behavior. More specifically, the study employed ordered probit analysis to craft its findings. The dependent variable of this study is the multi-stage pesticide application problem of farmers, and the core independent variables are market incentives and livelihood dependence, and the judgment is based on the core variable coefficients of the econometric model of farmers at each stage. The study found the following: (i) Market incentives significantly prompted some farmers to give up synthetic pesticide application and farmers tend to choose green pesticides in the type of pesticide application. (ii) Livelihood dependence meant that the proportion of tea income significantly prompts farmers to apply pesticides, and also creates a tendency for farmers to choose green and low-toxic pesticides in the type of pesticide application. The planting period tends to have a moderate impact on applying green and low-toxic pesticides. (iii) The interaction term of market incentives and the proportion of tea income has no significant impact on farmers' multi-stage pesticide application behavior. The interaction term of market incentives and planting years has impacted negatively on whether farmers apply pesticides, and has no significant impact on farmers' choice of pesticide application types, but makes farmers increase the amount of green and low-toxic pesticides. (iv) The education level of the household head significantly promotes farmers to choose green and low-toxic pesticides. Seemingly, the brand effect of pesticides significantly encourages farmers to choose green and low-toxic pesticides. In external support, technical training significantly encourages farmers to choose green and low-toxic pesticides. Furthermore, better infrastructure and local market conditions significantly encourage farmers to reduce the use of conventional pesticides.

Use, exposure, and environmental impacts of pesticides in Pakistan: a critical review

The excessive use of pesticides is posing major threats to humans and the environment. However, the environmental exposure and impact of pesticides in Pakistan have yet been systematically reviewed, despite the country's leading role in pesticide use. Therefore, this study identified and then reviewed 85 peer-reviewed scientific publications on the topic. It was found that, compared to the worldwide average, Pakistan had high consumptions of pesticides, with an alarming increase of 1169% in the last two decades. The quantities of pesticides used followed an order of pyrethroids > organophosphates > organochlorines > carbamates, but organochlorines were the most problematic due to their environmental occurrence, the ability to transport across the media, and identified human and ecological toxicities. Additionally, the misuse or overuse of pesticides by farmers is prevailing due to insufficient knowledge about the risks, which leads to high risks in occupational exposure. These issues are further aggravated by the illegal use or continuous impacts of banned organochlorine pesticides. For the future, we suggested the establishment of organized monitoring, assessment, and reporting program based on environmental laws to minimize contamination and exposure to pesticides in Pakistan. Remediation of the contaminated areas to mitigate the adverse environmental-cum-health impacts are recommended in the most affected regions.

Attitudinal behaviour of agriculturalists towards pesticide use in Pir Panjal Range of Kashmir Himalayas

BACKGROUND

Attainment of safety during pesticide spraying relies on the farmer's knowledge of pesticide use, attitude and sense of safety. However, such investigations are insufficient in the current study area.

METHODS

The study is based on a primary survey of 384 orchardists about the myriad of aspects affecting the use of pesticides and their subsequent effects.

RESULTS

The study revealed that knowledge, attitude, and perception had a weighted average index (WAI) and a standard deviation (SD) of 2.85 ± 1.17, 3.55 ± 1.34, and 3.81 ± 0.98 correspondingly. The findings reflect the farmers have a low to moderate level of knowledge, a moderate attitude toward pesticides, and a favourable perception on their utilization. Thus, for farmer personal protective equipment (PPE) use, it scored 2.77 ± 0.90 on the WAI scale, indicating that most farmers use PPEs 'rarely to occasionally' and that none use full protective gear. Furthermore, attitude and PPE usage exhibited a negative relationship with age, as younger people use PPE more than older ones. The findings were consistent for both farming experience and PPE usage. Moreover, there exists a positive association between age with perception and farming experience, knowledge with perception and PPE use, and attitude with perception.

CONCLUSIONS

The coefficient of determination (R²) shows that 67.2% of the variability in farmers' PPE use was attributed to factors including knowledge, attitude, perception, and education. A favorable behavioral shift in pesticide usage may be achieved by enhancing farmers' knowledge, attitudes and perceptions, and adequate PPE usage.

Multi-residue Analysis, Probabilistic Dietary Risk Assessment of 241 Pesticides in Wheatgrass (Triticum sp.) using LC-MS/MS in Combination with QuEChERS Extraction

Wheatgrass is consumed as an important nutritious herbal food supplement across the globe; however, limited studies have been reported on analysis of multi-class pesticides in this complex nutrient rich natural product. An analytical method was developed for the estimation of 241 pesticides in random Wheatgrass samples collected from Delhi-Northern Capital Region (Delhi-NCR). Extraction was performed by QuEChERS, cleaning was performed by dispersive solid phase and the extracts were analyzed using Triple Quadrupole Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry. The limit of quantification was 0.5 μg /kg, which is well below European Union-Maximum Residue Level. The coefficient of determination was >0.991 across calibration range of 0.5-100 μg /kg. The Relative Standard Deviation values for 231 pesticides based on 10 replicates of samples spiked at 10 μg /kg were <5%. Among random samples, 54% confirmed the presence of at least one pesticide. Results indicated the presence of 8 different pesticides among 38% of total population with Metribuzin at 299.7 μg /kg and Carfentrazone-ethyl at 19.47 μg/kg exceeding the permissible limits among 6% of total estimated population. The chronic and acute risk quotients as calculated were less than 1, indicating non-significant dietary risk to consumers. However, the presence of pesticides above permissible limit is likely to result in adverse health effects to the consumers of herbal supplements from urban population and incorporating measures would be useful to ensure the quality and safety of wheatgrass consumption.

Moderating role of locus of control over health belief model: a study of horticulturists' protective behavior

The widespread prevalence of using chemical substances such as fertilizers and pesticides in garden threatens the health of horticulturists. This study aimed to investigate the underlying elements of protective behavior of horticulturists from psychological aspects. The health Belief Model is the theoretical basis of this study and moderating the role of locus of control is explored over the model. The target population of study was horticulturists of Zanjan County, Iran. A questionnaire was distributed among a random sample of 293, who were selected using multi stage stratified sampling. The study results revealed that all elements of the proposed theory significantly influence the protective behavior. Furthermore, the study results confirmed the moderating effects of locus of control on the path relation between perceived profit and cues to action with protective behavior. The suggestions to improve protective behavior for individual with internal and external locus of control are presented.

Farmers' knowledge and practice regarding good agricultural practices (GAP) on safe pesticide usage in Indonesia

Synthetic pesticides are widely applied for pest and disease control in Indonesia. However, a lack of knowledge and use of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) for safe pesticide usage among Indonesian farmers remains a problem. This study aims to investigate the gap between farmers' knowledge of GAP for safe pesticide usage and their application of it. This research was conducted in 2020 in five Indonesian provinces. Primary data collection was by means of a survey, in which 298 respondents answered structured questionnaires. The survey also identified the sources of the information recorded and the respondents’ experience of pesticide exposure. The analysis tools used were the Wilcoxon Signed Ranked Test and Importance-Performance Analysis (IPA). There were significant differences in the results of the first analysis. These results appear to confirm the results of further analysis using IPA, which show that a high level of knowledge does not mean that farmers will apply this knowledge in practice: this is particularly relevant to wearing gloves and masks, using tools to remove blockages, never clearing blocked nozzles by blowing into them, and disposing of empty containers properly. Nevertheless, in some cases high levels of knowledge do result in high levels of application. Cases of pesticide exposure affecting human health by causing symptoms such as dizziness, nausea, and vomiting confirm that GAP for pesticide usage are not being implemented properly by some farmers. It is therefore recommended that their knowledge should be enhanced through the series of technical training programs using participatory approaches, so that farmers accumulate knowledge which will drive them to adopt GAP for safe pesticide usage.

Prevalence of Pesticide Use and Occupational Exposure Among Small-Scale Farmers in Western Ethiopia

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to assess the prevalence of pesticide use and its occupational exposure among small-scale farmers in the Kellem Wellega Zone of western Ethiopia.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study design using a structured questionnaire was used to collect data from 249 small-scale farmers' households through face-to-face interviews. Statistical analysis such as descriptive statistics, Chi-square test, and binary logistic regression analysis was applied, and a P-value <.05 at 95% CI was considered statistically significant.

RESULTS

The prevalence of pesticide use was 87.15%. About 44.2%, 40.2%, and 43.8% of the study participants were classified as having poor knowledge, poor practice, and negative attitude toward pesticide use, respectively. Thus, small-scale farmers whose age was greater than 40 years were 7.87 times more likely to be exposed to skin irritation than those whose age was less than 20 years (AOR = 7.87; 95% CI: 1.75-35.45) and skin contact (AOR = 0.37; 95% CI: 0.15-0.91). Most farmers who were directly involved in agriculture were 2.22 times more likely to be exposed to the inhalation of pesticide chemicals than those involved in another activity (AOR = 2.22; 95% CI: 1.14-4.33). Based on educational level, small-scale farmers who have a primary school and above were 81% less likely to inhale pesticide chemicals than those who did not have formal education (AOR = 0.19; 95% CI: 0.09-0.41). Furthermore, low-income small-scale farmers were 2.62 times more likely to be exposed to coughing (AOR = 2.62; 95% CI: 1.25-5.51) than high-income participants. Furthermore, farmers with good knowledge were 1.79 times more likely to be exposed to skin irritation than those with poor knowledge (AOR = 1.79; 95% CI: 1.0-3.17). Farmers with poor practice were 1.85 times more likely to show coughing symptoms than those with good practice (AOR = 1.85; 95% CI: 1.08-3.2), and farmers with good practice were 48% less likely to be exposed to headache than those with poor practice (AOR = 0.52; 95% CI: 0.31-0.88).

CONCLUSIONS

This study shows that small-scale farmers were exposed to pesticides through coughing, headache, skin irritation, inhalation, and skin contact. Low level of knowledge, poor practice, job, low income, older age, and educational level.

The Increase in Frequency of Protective Behavior against Pesticide Poisoning in Narail, Bangladesh through Use of an Easy Paper Checklist; an Interventional Study

Protecting the health of farmworkers is a crucial issue. Previous studies report that safety training and educational interventions might increase farmworkers’ protective behaviors. The present study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of distributing a checklist as an interventional measure for pesticide protection in rural Asia, where pesticide poisoning is a major problem. This study was a community-based interventional study, using the distribution of a checklist with pesticide protective habits in Narail district, Bangladesh, with a total of 100 eligible males. Two questionnaire surveys were conducted before distributing the checklist and 25 days after. Change between the baseline and follow-up surveys was measured by frequency scores of protective behavior. The average pesticide-protective behavioral score increased from 4.58 in the baseline survey to 8.11 in the follow-up. Additionally, the checklist was more effective in the group with higher education, the younger group, and the group with lower pesticide-protective behavioral scores in the baseline survey. The paper checklist on protective behaviors against pesticide poisoning was effective because of the increase in the frequency of such positive behavior among farmworkers. Thus, intervention measures should be implemented to increase the knowledge and awareness regarding pesticide protection habits to protect the health of farmworkers.

A cross sectional survey of knowledge, attitude and practices related to the use of insecticides among farmers in industrial triangle of Punjab, Pakistan

Pesticides in Pakistan are abundantly utilized for pest control in agriculture sector. The over and unsafe use of insecticides plus poor handling leads to the development of resistance, outbreak of secondary pests and hazardous impact on environment. The present study was aimed to access the current knowledge, attitude and common practices of farmers about the use of insecticides against pest in industrial triangle of Province Punjab, Pakistan. This study was conducted during October 2019 to February 2020. In this study farmers (n = 300) took part from three localities of Province Punjab (Gujrat, Gujranwala and Sialkot). Farmers were interviewed using a questionnaire to collect data about the knowledge of pest control by use of chemical method, biological method and combination of both to eradicate the pests. The result shows almost all (93%) farmers were male and they did not know about the insecticides mode of action and its chemical composition. They do not have any knowledge about the biological control of pests and did not get any assistance or help from Agriculture Extension Officer. They even did not properly dispose off the empty containers of insecticides. Statistical analysis reveals that lack of education and awareness about biological control of pest depicts development of resistance and outbreak of secondary pest including health hazards and environmental pollution. Poor understanding about pests, abundant use of insecticides, incorrect perception about application of insecticides and negligence regarding biological control shows that there is need to initiate public awareness programs to ensure the application of integrated pest management (IPM) and sustainable agriculture.

Income, wealth and use of personal protection equipment in the Mekong Delta

Both in developing and developed countries, farmers often do not protect themselves adequately, especially when applying agrochemicals that are dangerous for their health. The issue is relevant because insufficient protection is between the causes leading to intoxication of farmers and workers who handle these products. The literature suggests that both lack of training and information and low income may explain why, especially in developing countries, protective equipment is under-used. Using data from the Mekong Delta, this study addresses the issue of whether income and household wealth may help explaining the use of incomplete protections against pesticides. The results suggest that income, more than wealth, is a reason why Vietnamese farmers operating in the Mekong Delta fail in using adequate protections. In particular, the data suggest that they may prefer to divert resources to increasing the production of their fields or to buying goods that may be used both as protection and as everyday garments. This behaviour leads to underinvestment in some important protective goods. Possible public interventions to mitigate the problem are suggested; in particular, the promotion of integrated pest management techniques could be useful.

Factors Associated with Practice of Chemical Pesticide Use and Acute Poisoning Experienced by Farmers in Chitwan District, Nepal

In view of increasing irrational use and unsafe handling of pesticides in agriculture in Nepal, a descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted to assess the practice of chemical pesticide use and acute health symptoms experienced by farmers. A total of 790 farmers from the Chitwan district were randomly selected for the study. X2 test, T-test, and Multiple Logistic Regression were used for analysis. Among the farmers, 84% used exclusively chemical pesticide. Farmers with better knowledge on pesticide handling were 8.3 times more likely to practice safe purchasing, four times more likely to practice safe mixing and spraying, and two times more likely to practice safe storage and disposal. Similarly, perception/attitude of farmers about chemical pesticide policy and market management was significantly associated with the practice of farmers during purchasing, mixing and spraying, and storage and disposal. Among the users of chemical pesticides, 18.7% farmers experienced one or more pesticide related acute symptoms of health problems during the previous 12 months. Farmers with unsafe practices of pesticide handling were two times more likely to suffer from acute poisoning. It is concluded that knowledge about pesticide handling and favorable perception/attitude on pesticide policy and market management are the predictors of safe use of pesticide.

Assessment of farmers' understanding of the pictograms displayed on pesticide labels

Pesticide labels and pictograms are the first and utmost source of information for safe use and personal protection of farmers and a legally binding document against environmental degradation reinforced by governments. The influence of pictogram information on the safe use of pesticides depends on the importance of pictogram to farmers and how they interpret its information. The present study explores farmers' interpretation of risk assessment data of pictograms displayed on pesticide labels. The statistical population is composed of all wheat and potato farmers in Ardabil County (N = 4964) of which 200 farmers were sampled based on Morgan's sampling table. Data were collected using a questionnaire for the 2018-2019 cropping year. The content validity of the research instrument was determined by a panel of faculty members and its reliability was confirmed by the coefficient of Cronbach's alpha. Results indicated that farmers had poor understanding of the pictograms. Unclarity of pictograms, inability to understand their meaning, and low literacy or illiteracy were the main causes of poor understanding of pictograms, respectively. Educational level, extension training, and attitude also had a positive significant relationship with pictogram comprehension. On the other hand, pictogram comprehension did not show a significant correlation with the use of personal protective equipment and the adoption of safety measures during pesticide handling and application. The results of multiple regression analysis indicated that the variables of attitude towards pictograms, information sources, educational level, and attending training courses on chemical pesticides were the main factors underpinning pictogram understanding so that they altogether accounted for 58% of the variance in the dependent variable of the research.

Assessment of respiratory exposure to cypermethrin among farmers and farm workers of Shiraz, Iran

Cypermethrin, a member of the synthetic pyrethroids group, is a popular insecticide used to eliminate a broad range of common bugs in agricultural lands and households. However, studies of farmers' exposure to this insecticide are limited. The present study aimed to measure the respiratory exposure to cypermethrin among farmers and farm workers of Shiraz, as one of the biggest cities in Fars province, Iran. Totally, nine target regions were selected, where 42 individual samples were taken using XAD-2 sorbents and were analyzed by gas chromatography-electron capture detector (GC-ECD). This is the first study on farmers' exposure to insecticides during spraying in Iran. The average concentration of cypermethrin vapor in farmers' respiratory area during spraying was 0.982 ± 0.421 mg/m³, which was lower than the permitted threshold value for cypermethrin recommended by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). The mean time-weighted average (TWA) was also evaluated in two distinct occupational groups (tree operators and field operators). The exposure was significantly higher in tree operators than in field operators. A direct correlation was also found between the height of the workers and the amount of cypermethrin (Spearman's r = 0.555). Findings support that farm workers' respiratory exposure to cypermethrin was within the permissible range, but this situation cannot guarantee workers' safety. Total respiratory exposure and skin exposure studies are recommended in future research.

Farmers' behavior towards safe pesticide handling: An analysis with the theory of planned behavior

Inappropriate handling of pesticides in agriculture poses a major risk to the environment and human health, but factors affecting farmers' behavior are diverse and often unclear. The present study examined farmers' behavior in safe pesticide use (disposal of spray solution leftovers, places for washing sprayers, disposal of rinsates, and use of personal protective equipment) in Ardabil Province, Iran by applying the well-known theory of planned behavior, which states that attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control of individuals shape intention and engagement in a specific behavior. Almost 30% of the farmers threw pesticide spray solution leftovers away, while the remaining farmers kept it for next spraying. Concerning place for washing sprayers, 55.3% of the farmers washed sprayers in their home yard, 21.0% washed them in the river or the canal flow, and 14.7% washed them in the water source of the farm. Just less than two-thirds (64.3%) of the farmers said that they leave the rinsates onto the farm, while almost one-third (34.0%) said that they pour the rinsates into the river or the canal flow. Most farmers used trousers and blouse and to a lesser extent mask, gloves, and hat when handling pesticides. Attitudes towards safe pesticide use showed the highest mean score (2.91), illustrating neutral to relatively negative attitudes of farmers towards safe pesticide use. Intention showed the lowest mean score (2.28), indicating poor motive to use pesticides safely. Attitudes showed positive impact, while perceived behavioral control showed negative impact on intention. Subjective norms had no significant impact on intention. These three constructs totally explained 78.1% of the variance in farmers' intention towards safe pesticide use. Improving attitudes and perceived behavioral control of farmers towards safe pesticide use through extension education should be targeted for improving farmers' intention and behavior towards safe pesticide handling.

A Review on Prediction Models for Pesticide Use, Transmission, and Its Impacts

The lure of increased productivity and crop yield has caused the imprudent use of pesticides in great quantity that has unfavorably affected environmental health. Pesticides are chemicals intended for avoiding, eliminating, and mitigating any pests that affect the crop. Lack of awareness, improper management, and negligent disposal of pesticide containers have led to the permeation of pesticide residues into the food chain and other environmental pathways, leading to environmental degradation. Sufficient steps must be undertaken at various levels to monitor and ensure judicious use of pesticides. Development of prediction models for optimum use of pesticides, pesticide management, and their impact would be of great help in monitoring and controlling the ill effects of excessive use of pesticides. This paper aims to present an exhaustive review of the prediction models developed and modeling strategies used to optimize the use of pesticides.

Do farmers perceive risks of fraudulent pesticides? Evidence from Saudi Arabia

The increasing number of fraudulent pesticides on the market not only constitutes a major threat to sustainable agriculture but can also have adverse consequences for the environment and human health. The purpose of this study is to assess farmers’ risk perception with regard to fraudulent pesticides and to establish the determinants of their perception. Data were collected through structured questionnaires from 370 farmers from the eastern region in Saudi Arabia. The findings showed that farmers had a high perception of physical, legal, social, and physiological risks of counterfeit pesticides, while they had a moderate perception of agri-environmental risks (M = 3.47, SD = 0.72) and economic risks (M = 3.52, SD = 1.11). Moreover, 73.5% of farmers reported that they had purchased fraudulent pesticides in the last three years. The results of the t-test revealed that the number of farmers who had purchased fraudulent pesticides was significantly higher than the number of farmers who had not purchased such pesticides regarding the perception of the majority of risks, except for physical risk. Multivariate regression analyses showed that age, farm size, farming experience, extension contact, and purchased fraudulent pesticides were significantly associated with risk perception. The findings suggest that awareness campaigns on recognizing fraudulent pesticides among farmers are needed, as well as policy measures, to combat counterfeiting in the agricultural sector in cooperation with other stakeholders.