Recent advances in biosensors for detection of osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis biomarkers

Biosensors for autoimmune diseases

Diagnosis of autoimmune diseases (ADs) is usually based on symptoms and laboratory tests that measure the occurrence of serological and genetic biomarkers such as peptides, autoantibodies, and complement proteins. Early detection of AD is essential to reduce the severity of symptoms and organ damage as a result of progressive disease. Biosensors are tools that convert biochemical signals produced by molecular elements into optical, electrical, and other physical signals for analysis. In recent years, peptides, antigens, aptamers, autoantibodies, and other biomolecules have provided suitable diagnostic features for development of biosensors in detecting and follow up the diagnoses and treatment of diseases. This study reviews the introducing of different biomarkers in ADs with the novel vision to use of biosensor technology for research and development in this regard. Therefore, this study has the required innovation for using biosensor technology with more attention to electrochemical based biosensors to developing, targeting and designing the easy applicable and available diagnostic and response to treatment products using key biomolecules for ADs. It will help readers to understand the research trends of biosensors in ADs and further advance the development of this paramount field.

Advancements of paper-based sensors for antibiotic-resistant bacterial species identification

Evolution of antimicrobial-resistant bacterial species is on a rise. This review aims to explore the diverse range of paper-based platforms designed to identify antimicrobial-resistant bacterial species. It highlights the most important targets used for sensor development and examines the applications of nanosized particles used in paper-based sensors. This review also discusses the advantages, limitations, and applicability of various targets and detection techniques for sensing drug-resistant bacterial species using paper-based platforms.

Innovations in Biosensor Technologies for Healthcare Diagnostics and Therapeutic Drug Monitoring: Applications, Recent Progress, and Future Research Challenges

This comprehensive review delves into the forefront of biosensor technologies and their critical roles in disease biomarker detection and therapeutic drug monitoring. It provides an in-depth analysis of various biosensor types and applications, including enzymatic sensors, immunosensors, and DNA sensors, elucidating their mechanisms and specific healthcare applications. The review highlights recent innovations such as integrating nanotechnology, developing wearable devices, and trends in miniaturisation, showcasing their transformative potential in healthcare. In addition, it addresses significant sensitivity, specificity, reproducibility, and data security challenges, proposing strategic solutions to overcome these obstacles. It is envisaged that it will inform strategic decision-making, drive technological innovation, and enhance global healthcare outcomes by synthesising multidisciplinary insights.

Nanomaterials in the treatment and diagnosis of rheumatoid arthritis: Advanced approaches

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA), a chronic inflammatory condition that affects persons between the ages of 20 and 40, causes synovium inflammation, cartilage loss, and joint discomfort as some of its symptoms. Diagnostic techniques for RA have traditionally been split into two main categories: imaging and serological tests. However, significant issues are associated with both of these methods. Imaging methods are costly and only helpful in people with obvious symptoms, while serological assays are time-consuming and require specialist knowledge. The drawbacks of these traditional techniques have led to the development of novel diagnostic approaches. The unique properties of nanomaterials make them well-suited as biosensors. Their compact dimensions are frequently cited for their outstanding performance, and their positive impact on the signal-to-noise ratio accounts for their capacity to detect biomarkers at low detection limits, with excellent repeatability and a robust dynamic range. In this review, we discuss the use of nanomaterials in RA theranostics. Scientists have recently synthesized, characterized, and modified nanomaterials and biomarkers commonly used to enhance RA diagnosis and therapy capabilities. We hope to provide scientists with the promising potential that nanomaterials hold for future theranostics and offer suggestions on further improving nanomaterials as biosensors, particularly for detecting autoimmune disorders.

Sensitive osteoarthritis sensing by salt-induced aggregation and dispersion of gold nanoparticles

Osteoarthritis occurs in any joints, and identification in its earlier stages helps to treat the disease and increase the recovery rate. The radiography method and imaging techniques are traditionally used to identify osteoarthritis. But these methods are expensive, and with the complicated steps. Researchers are working toward developing a highly sensitive biosensor in identifying the osteoarthritis biomarker. This research was focused on developing a C-terminal telopeptide of type II collagen (CTX-II) colorimetric sensor with gold nanoparticle (AuNP) for diagnosing osteoarthritis. Anti-CTX-II was conjugated with AuNP and then added with CTX-II and sodium chloride for the color change. In the presence of CTX-II, antibody releases from AuNP then binds with CTX-II, and the color of AuNP changed to purple. Without the CTX-II, AuNP remains its red color (dispersed). This easier colorimetric assay detected the CTX-II as low as 2 ng/mL on linear regression [y = 0.0131x - 0.0051; R2 = 0.9205]. Furthermore, control performances with the relevant proteins osteopontin, IL-6, and nonimmune antibody failed to change the color confirming the specific identification of CTX-II.

Microfluidic chip immunoassay based on rolling circle amplification and G-quadruplex/Thioflavin T for multiplex detection of CTX I

A label-free immunoassay based on rolling circle amplification (RCA) and G-quadruplex/Thioflavin T (G4/ThT) is proposed to realize the sensitive detection of carboxy-terminal cross-linked fragment of type I collagen (CTX I) for bone loss. Under the optimal conditions, as low as 38.02 pg/mL of CTX I can be detected. To improve the detecting throughput and simplify the operation, a microfluidic chip was designed, fabricated, and used for CTX I detection based on the proposed assay. The detection can be completed with only a single on-chip magnetic separation step, which was easy to operate, less time-consuming, and has only low reagent consumption. The limit of detection was 131.83 pg/mL by observing with fluorescence microscope. With further improvement of detection equipment, the sensitivity of on-chip detection can be improved. It can be expected that the proposed RCA/G4/ThT immunoassay for sensitive and high-throughput automated detection of CTX I might be chosen as a potential analytical tool for clinical osteoporosis diagnosis and in-orbit bone loss detection.

An Innovative Electrochemical Immuno-Platform for Monitoring Chronic Conditions Using the Biosensing of Hyaluronic Acid in Human Plasma Samples

Hyaluronic acid (HA) is the main non-sulfated glycosaminoglycan of the extracellular matrix that is synthesized by fibroblasts and other specialized connective tissue cells. The accumulation of HA on different tissues is a characteristic of disorders that are associated with progressive tissue fibrosis. HA is also known to play a critical role in tumorigenesis and tumor metastasis. It is overproduced by many types of tumors and promotes tumor progression and multidrug resistance. There is a great necessity for the development of an easy and cost-effective detection method for the monitoring of HA for both the diagnosis and efficient treatment of related disorders. In the present study, an innovative immune device was designed for the rapid and sensitive recognition of HA in human plasma samples. For this purpose, an efficient alloy (Pt@Au) was fabricated on the surface of the gold electrode. Thus, a novel substrate was used for the preparation of an efficient transducer, which is necessary for the immobilization of biotinylated antibodies. CHA was applied for the electrochemical deposition of Pt@Au nano-alloy on Au electrodes. Additionally, the morphological study of the used nanocomposite was assessed using FESEM at a working voltage of 3 kV, and the chemical structures of the electrode were analyzed using the EDS apparatus. For the first time, a biocompatible alloy-based substrate was prepared for the study of antigen–antibody identification. The developed immunosensor has a linear response within the range of 0.156–160 ng.mL−1 with a limit of detection of 0.039 ng.mL−1 in human plasma samples. This research study offers a novel promising technique for HA analyses and is anticipated to be used in the early diagnosis of some disorders related to abnormal levels of HA in human bio-fluids. Thus, a constructed (pt@Au) nano-alloy provides a useful interface for the dense loading of AB. This excellent design loads high sensations of the biosensor for the selective detection of HA in real samples (human bio-fluids).

Serum Autoantibody Biomarkers for Management of Rheumatoid Arthritis Disease

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic chronic autoimmune inflammatory disease that is characterized by the destruction of bone and production of autoantibodies such as rheumatoid factor (RF) and anticitrullinated protein antibodies (ACPAs). The high prevalence of this disease and the need of affordable tools for its early detection led us to prepare the first electrochemical immunoplatform for the simultaneous determination of four RA biomarkers, the autoantibodies: RF, anti-peptidyl-arginine deiminase enzyme (anti-PAD4), anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide (anti-CCP), and anti-citrullinated vimentin (anti-MCV). Functionalized magnetic beads (MBs) were used to immobilize the specific antigens, and sandwich-type immunoassays were implemented for the amperometric detection of the four autoantibodies, using the horseradish peroxidase (HRP)/H₂O₂/hydroquinone (HQ) system. The immunoplatform was applied to the determination of the biomarkers in human serum of twenty-two patients diagnosed with RA and four healthy individuals, and the results were validated against ELISA tests and the certified values.

Electrochemical (Bio)Sensing Devices for Human-Microbiome-Related Biomarkers

The study of the human microbiome is a multidisciplinary area ranging from the field of technology to that of personalized medicine. The possibility of using microbiota biomarkers to improve the diagnosis and monitoring of diseases (e.g., cancer), health conditions (e.g., obesity) or relevant processes (e.g., aging) has raised great expectations, also in the field of bioelectroanalytical chemistry. The well-known advantages of electrochemical biosensors-high sensitivity, fast response, and the possibility of miniaturization, together with the potential for new nanomaterials to improve their design and performance-position them as unique tools to provide a better understanding of the entities of the human microbiome and raise the prospect of huge and important developments in the coming years. This review article compiles recent applications of electrochemical (bio)sensors for monitoring microbial metabolites and disease biomarkers related to different types of human microbiome, with a special focus on the gastrointestinal microbiome. Examples of electrochemical devices applied to real samples are critically discussed, as well as challenges to be faced and where future developments are expected to go.

Nanotechnology-Enabled Biosensors: A Review of Fundamentals, Design Principles, Materials, and Applications

Biosensors are modern engineering tools that can be widely used for various technological applications. In the recent past, biosensors have been widely used in a broad application spectrum including industrial process control, the military, environmental monitoring, health care, microbiology, and food quality control. Biosensors are also used specifically for monitoring environmental pollution, detecting toxic elements' presence, the presence of bio-hazardous viruses or bacteria in organic matter, and biomolecule detection in clinical diagnostics. Moreover, deep medical applications such as well-being monitoring, chronic disease treatment, and in vitro medical examination studies such as the screening of infectious diseases for early detection. The scope for expanding the use of biosensors is very high owing to their inherent advantages such as ease of use, scalability, and simple manufacturing process. Biosensor technology is more prevalent as a large-scale, low cost, and enhanced technology in the modern medical field. Integration of nanotechnology with biosensors has shown the development path for the novel sensing mechanisms and biosensors as they enhance the performance and sensing ability of the currently used biosensors. Nanoscale dimensional integration promotes the formulation of biosensors with simple and rapid detection of molecules along with the detection of single biomolecules where they can also be evaluated and analyzed critically. Nanomaterials are used for the manufacturing of nano-biosensors and the nanomaterials commonly used include nanoparticles, nanowires, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), nanorods, and quantum dots (QDs). Nanomaterials possess various advantages such as color tunability, high detection sensitivity, a large surface area, high carrier capacity, high stability, and high thermal and electrical conductivity. The current review focuses on nanotechnology-enabled biosensors, their fundamentals, and architectural design. The review also expands the view on the materials used for fabricating biosensors and the probable applications of nanotechnology-enabled biosensors.

A novel immuno-device based on the specific binding of AuNP-supported CTAB with biotinylated antibody of hyaluronic acid toward an early-stage recognition of a biomarker: a bioanalytical assay in real samples using disposal biosensor technology

Hyaluronic Acid (HA) is a non-sulfated glycosaminoglycan, which is a potential biomarker that could be evaluated in the diagnosis of some cancers. For the first time, a novel label-free electrochemical immunosensor was developed based on modified ITO-PET (indium tin oxide-polyethylene terephthalate) electrodes for the sensitive recognition of hyaluronic acid (HA) in real samples. A disposable ITO-coated PET electrode was modified with gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) to construct a suitable substrate for the efficient immobilization of biotinylated antibodies of HA. Importantly, the encapsulation of biotinylated antibody of HA in KCC1-NH-CS₂ was performed successfully, which was another innovative part of this bio-device construction. For determining the immobilization steps and optimization of the biosensor, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and cyclic voltammetry (CV) techniques were used. Furthermore, the morphological characterization of each ITO electrode surface was performed by field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM). Specific binding of gold nanoparticles supported CTAB to ITO-PET and its bioconjugation with the biotinylated antibody of HA was studied using the electroanalysis of the sensor performance. For the better performance of the antibody to generate an immunocomplex with HA (antigen), its encapsulation was performed, which led to the excellent behavior of the immunosensor. The proposed HA immunosensor indicated excellent reproducibility, high selectivity, and long-term stability. The HA electrochemical immunosensor performed perfectly with a wide determination range (0.078 to 160 ng mL^-1) and a low limit of quantification (0.078 ng mL^-1) in human plasma samples. It is recommended that the designed biosensor can be used as a diagnostic tool in clinical bioassays in the near future.